Identifying Carbohydrates Lab Report

(insert name here) (insert period ) Identifying Carbohydrates (First inital and last name of research laboratory partner) Purpose The purpose of this lab is to learn how to identify different forms of carbohydrates by conducting the Benedict and single running game. Theory The theory for this concept is that if in the benedicts test the carbohydrate reacts, it is a monosaccharide. If it reacts in the Iodine test it is a polysaccharide. If no reaction occurs in either test the carbohydrate is a disaccharide. info Type of carbohydrate Benedicts Test Iodine Test monosaccharose R NR Disaccharide NR NR Polysaccharide NR R Solution Bendicts Test Iodine Test passion R NR Oats NR R Table Sugar NR NR Apple Juice R NR pulverized Sugar NR NR Results Solution Type of carbohydrate Honey Monosaccharide Oats Polysaccharide Table Sugar Disaccharide Apple succus Monosaccharide Powdered Sugar Disaccharide Conclusion I found that honey reacted with the Benedicts test, so it must be a monosacchari de. Oats did not react with the Benedicts test, but did react ith the Iodine test so it is a polysaccharide. Both the table sugar and the pulverize sugar reacted with neither tests, so they are both disaccharides. Lastly, the apple juice reacted with the Benedicts test so it is a monosaccharide. Questions 1) It could be a Polysaccharide or a Disaccharide. 2) It could be a Disaccharide or a Monosaccharide. 3) This would be a monosaccharide. 4) This would be a Disaccharide. 5) They originally came from producers. 6) The chemical formula is Cx(H2Oy) 7) 8)C12 H22 O11

Learning Technology Essay

Due to their nature, a lot of possibilities ar opened up in virtual worlds that are not present in the really world. These can make it highly conducive to skill cutting things. For instance, students that are separated by geography can share a class. A virtual environment ensures that procedures or demonstrations normally limited by ambit or expense can be repeated, observed and redone as oft as necessary. The very idea that is entertainment, and not just another sidereal day in class provides a stimulus to education that real schools lots lack.The greater opportunity for collaboration, relative safety and convenience provided by online manoeuvre certainly makes it a solid platform capable of delivering the lessons of the future. Cons of Using irregular animation as a Learning Technology Some aspects of reading can never be completely replaced however. While Second feel may offer a greatly enhanced experience and quick transfer of information, it is still nothing like fa ce-to-face interaction. A exclusively automated method of teaching is still prone to disruption and poisonous griefing, especially in anonline game like Second Life. And virtual objects forget never be a substitute for tangible things, making it troublesome for educational applications that require hands-on training. Overall, the pros outweigh the cons, and many institutes of higher learning are already aware of this fact. Utilizing Second Life as a Educational Tool for the Real World Learning a new language is an effort that can be greatly enhanced by interaction with elements that are connected to the culture in some way. in that locationa quite a few themed regions in Second Life that are almost perfect replicas of their real-world counterparts, complete with native speakers to boot. Virtual tourism is the perfect way to learn and remember commonly-used phrases before the real trip.ReferencesKock, N. , Verville, J. , & Garza, V. (2007). Media naturalness and online learning Findings supporting both the significant- and nosignificant-difference perspectives. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 5(2), 333-356.

Modes of Acceptance

An borrowing mustiness(prenominal) be communicated for it to be powerful and valid. The mental as dis emerge of both parties is non required further the extraneous manifestation should comprise. The causeor must dos aroundthing in parade to nonify his adoption. For example, he should communicate his credence of the cristalor. This can be illustrated in the event of Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Co (1877) 2 App Cas 666. In this lesson, the suspects had for some long time supplied the complainants with coals. It was suggested by the defendants that a contr exercise should be entered into mingled with them.After their divisors had met, the ground of the agreement were drawn up by the plaintiffs divisor and displace to the defendants. The soul of the defendants firm filled up certain parts of the agreement which had been left field blank, inserted the name of the proposed arbitrator, wrote approved at the end of the page, and signed his own name. The defendant s agent sent the document back to the plaintiffs agent, who put it in his desk. Nothing throw out was d mavin to execute the agreement. For some time, both parties acted in accordance with the arrangements state in the document.Subsequently, the defendants declined to continue the supply of coals in this style. The plaintiffs brought an action for damages for breaking of signalise. The defendants denied the existence of any stupefy for the supply of coals. the House of superiors held that there was no betrothal of the go game. Although there may be mental assent, the act of the plaintiffs agent putting the document into his desk would non amount to communion of the credenza. However, the House of Lords held that by virtue of the rail line of dealings of the parties in the ordering and supply of the coals, much(prenominal) conduct amounted to an acceptance.The communicating of an entreat and an acceptance, which are the requirements of a valid agreement, is express i n department 3 of the Contracts make for 1950. It was described that the converse of proposals, the acceptance of proposals, and the revocation of proposals and acceptances, respectively, are deemed to be make by any act or omission of the party proposing, accepting, or revoking, by which he intends to communicate the proposal, acceptance, or revocation, or which has the effect of communicating it. Communication of an acceptance is in any case illustrated in the Contracts Act 1950.It was described in office 4(2) of the Contracts Act 1950 when the talk of acceptance will be pick up. It was stated in component 4(2)(a) that the communication of acceptance against the proposer is fat, when it is put in the course of transmission to him, so as to be out of the power of the acceptor. It was stated in Section 4(2)(b) that the communication of acceptance as against the acceptor is cope when it comes to the knowledge of the person whom it is made to who is the proposer.This is furt her explained in Illustration (b) that the communication of the acceptance is complete as against A, the proposer, when the earn is spotlighted and as against B, the acceptor, when the earn is received by A, the proposer. overly that, Section 9 of the Contracts Act to a fault describes the mode of acceptance. It provides that as uttermost as an acceptance is made in words, the promise is give tongue to to be express. If the acceptance is made early(a) than in words, the promise is then said to be implied. Thus, an acceptance can be made through conduct.Section 8 of the Contracts Act provides for such(prenominal) acceptance where it is through the performance of conditions in a proposal. This can be seen in the case of Carlill v Carbolic rat Ball Co 1892 2 QB 484 1893 1 QB 256. In this case, , the defendant, a owner of a medical preparation called The Carbollic Smoke Ball issued an advertisement pass to pay a rack up of money to person who trained flu even by and by us ing the ball in the prescribed dash and time. Defendant banked in a sum of money to gain the trust of the public.Plaintiff bought and used the ball in the manner prescribed and caught influenza. She claimed for the compensation but the defendant refused to compensate her. She then sued the defendant. Defendant contended that the advertisement was a mere puff and was non intended to create a dorsum obligation. Court of approach held that an supply can be made to the being and it becomes a stimulate when any person performs the condition. It was also mentioned in Section 7(b) of the Contracts Act that where the mode of cceptance is specified in the offer, the acceptor must communicate his acceptance in that mode. If no mode is specified, acceptance by any uncouth and reasonable manner which shows the acceptors excogitation to accept is sufficient. There are a few types of communication of acceptance. First is via short letter or telegram. There is a difficulty in this type os communication of acceptance delinquent to the time lag between calculateing and receiving and in situations where the acceptance is not received by the offeror without the fault of either party.The general endure at common law is that acceptance is complete when it is brought to the name of the offeror. scarcely it was stated in the postal formula that an acceptance is complete when the letter containing such acceptance is posted, or when the telegram containing such acceptance is pass in. This can be seen in the case of Househ mature Fire and way Accident Insurance v Grant (1879) 4 EX D 216 41 LT 298, CA.In this case, the defendant made an operation for shares in the plaintiffs fraternity under passel from which it must be implied that he authorised the confederacy, in the event of their allotting to him the shares utilise for, to send the remonstrate of allotment by post. The company did allot him the shares, and posted a letter duly addressed to him containing th e notice of allotment, but it was found as a fact that the letter neer reached its destination. The defendant never paid the value of the shares as stated in the application.Subsequently, the company went into liquidation and the official liquidator applied for the unpaid price of the shares from the defendant. The defendant declined to pay on the ground that he was not a shareholder. The Court of Appeal affirmed the judgment of Lopes J and held that the defendant was apt(p) as a shareholder. In this case, the Court applied the postal rule. Thus, the communication of the companys acceptance of the defendants application for, and allotment of shares which was sent by post was complete once it was posted.Thesiger J explained the rationale of the postal rule as follows I see no better mode than that of treating the post office as the agent of both parties But if the post office be such common agent, then it seems to me to follow that, as soon as the letter of acceptance is throw i n the toweled to the post office, the contract is made as complete and lowest and absolutely backrest as if the acceptor had put his letter into the hands of a messenger sent by the offerer himself as his agent to deliver the offer and receive the acceptance.I am not prepared to guide that the implication in question will lead to any wide or general inconvenience or hardhip. An offerer, if he chooses, may perpetually make the formation of the contract which he proposes dependent upon the actual communication to himself of the acceptance. If he trusts to the post he trusts to a means of communication which, as a rule, does not fail, and if no help to his offer is received by him, and the way out is of importance to him, he can make inquiries of the person to whom his offer was addressed.On the other hand, if the contract is not finally reason, except in the event of the acceptance actually reaching the offerer, the door would be loose to the perpetration of much fraud, and, p utting aside this consideration, considerable prevent in commercial transactions, in which despatch is, as a rule, of the greatest consequence, would be occasioned for the acceptor would never be entirely safe in acting upon his acceptance until he had received notice that his letter of acceptance had reached its destination.The application of the postal rule can also be seen in the case of Adams v Lindsell (1818) 1B & Ald 681. In this case, the defendants, who were dealers of wool, had on family line 2, written to the plaintiffs, woollen manufacturers, religious offering to sell to them a number of fleeces. They required an answer in course of post. The letter was misdirected by the defendants, and consequently was not received by the plaintiffs until kinsfolk 5. On the same evening, the plaintiffs wrote an answer, agreeing to accept the offer on the call proposed.The acceptance did not reach the defendants until September 9. On September 8, the defendants, not having received an answer on September 7, as they had expected, sold the wool, to a third party. The Court applied the postal rule of acceptance and held that the acceptance was complete as against the defendants on September 5. For example, prior to the revocation of their offer through the sale of the wool to the third party on September 8.The Court held that if the rule was that no contract could be formed until the acceptance was actually received, no contract could ever be completed for if the defendants were not bound by their offer till the answer was received, the plaintiffs ought not to be bound till after they had received the notification that the defendants had received their answer and assented to it, and so it might go on ad infinitum. An acceptance should be made in the usual and reasonable manner. It can be seen in the case of Henthon v Fraser1892 2 Ch 27.In this case, the claimant received a bank neb from the defendant with an offer to purchase a certain property inwardly 14 da ys. The claimant responded to the offer with an acceptance posted the next day via mail. The defendant withdrew the offer forrader receiving the acceptance, but after the acceptance was posted. Court of Appeal inferred that both parties would befuddle contemplated that the letter be sent by post. Lord Herschell stated In the present case an authority to accept by post must be implied.Although the Plaintiff received the offer at the Defendants office in Liverpool, he resided in other town, and it must retain been in contemplation that he would take the offer, which by its terms was to stay put open for some days, with him to his place of residence, and those who made the offer must rush cognise that it would be according to the cut-and-dried usages of mankind that if he current it he should communicate his acceptance by means of the post where the constituent are such the acceptance is complete as soon as it is posted.In the case of Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes 1974 1 WL R 155. In this case, the defendant issued a grant to sell a property at 571 graduate(prenominal) Road, Wembley. It contained a article stipulating that there must be notice in writing within six months in order to exercise the option. The claimants sent a letter exercising the option. It was lost in the mail and was never received by the defendant. The Court placed much emphasis on the meaning of notice which must mean that it must be known or intimated to the vendor who never was since the letter carrying the information went astray.Lawton Lj referred to the postal rule but held that it would not apply if the offer expressly specifies that the acceptance must reach the offeror and if application of the rule causes manifest inconvenience and ridiculousness. In the case of Lee Seng Heng & Ors v Guardian Assurance Co Ltd 1932 MLJ17. In this case, the plaintiffs insured their stock in trade with the defendants against produce. Subsequently, a fire broke out on the insured premises a nd the plaintiffs made a claim under the polity.The defendants solicitors wrote to the plaintiffs saying that on the date of the fire, the policy had ceased to exist as they had previously written to the plaintiffs cancelling the policy. This letter was never received by the plaintiffs as there was no post office at Buloh Kasap. The close post office was at the town of Segamat and the practice at Segamat was to send a postman to Buloh Kasap hardly when the amount of correspondence justified a special journey. The letter in question had been kept at Segamat and had only been brought to Buloh Kasap by the postman after the fire.As the plaintiffs premises had been burnt down, the addressee could not be found. Munson CJ stated that The only point, therefore, left for me to decide is whether the post was decently used here as an agent by the Defendants in displace their letter of the 27th March. The Plaintiffs acted from Buloh Kasap five miles from Segamat which is some 125 miles fr om Singapore and some 50 miles from Malacca. It is difficult to see how they were ordinarily to communicate if not by post I hold as farawaywell J. did in Bruner v.Moore, that the parties in this case contemplate that the post might be used as a means of communicating on all subjects connected with the contract. In these circumstances it is clear that the sender of the letter is not responsible for any delay in the post I hold, therefore, that the rescission of the policy was effected at the moment that the letter of the 27th March was posted, that is on the 27th March, 1931, and that the policy was non-existent at the date of the fire. The second mode of communication is via teletypewriter or telephone.Communications through the telex and telephone are diverse from posting and the postal acceptance rule does not apply. They are considered fast communication where parties are regarded to be in each others presence and is complete only when it is received. It can be seen in th e case of Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation 1955 2 QB 327. In this case, the plaintiffs were an English company and the defendants were an American corporation with agents all over the world, including a Dutch company in Amsterdam.The plaintiffs wished to make a contract with the defendants Dutch agents for the purchase of copper cathodes from the defendants. A series of communication theory passed by telex between the plaintiffs and the Dutch company, the natural one being a counter-offer made by the plaintiffs on September 8, 1954, and an acceptance of that offer by the Dutch agents on behalf of the defendants received by the plaintiffs in London by telex on September 10, 1954. The plaintiffs posterior alleged that there had been a breach of contract by the defendants.They applied for leave to make out notice of a writ on the defendants in New York on the ground that the contract was made in England and, therefore, unload within the Rules of the Supreme Court. The defe ndants contended that the contract was made in Holland. The Court rule that the communication through telex in this case was instantaneous and the contract was made at the place where acceptance was received, in this case, in London. Denning LJ considered the matter in stages.First is, when a contract is made by post it is clear law throughout the common law countries that the acceptance is complete as soon as the letter is put into the post box, and that is the place where the contract is made. But there is no clear rule round contracts made by telephone or by telex. Second is communications by these means are virtually instantaneous and stand on a different footing. The problem can only be understand by going in stages. Let me first consider a case where two people make a contract by word of mouth in the presence of one another.The communication of telex acceptances was also applied in Brinkibon Ltd v Stuhag Stahl 1983 2 AC 34, HL. In this case, Brinkibon was a London company t hat purchased steel from Stahag, a seller base in Austria. Brinkibon sent their acceptance to a Stahag offer by teletypewriter to Vienna. Brinkibon later wanted to issue a writ against Stahag and applied to serve an out of jurisdiction party. They would only be able to do so if the contract had been formed in England. The question at issue was where the contract was formed.The House of Lords held that the contract was made in Vienna. The next mode of communication is acceptance by conduct. In the case of Taylor v Allon 1966 1 QB 304 , the appellants machine had been insured by an indemnity company called The Federated Employers Insurance link Ltd, the policy expiring on April 5, 1964. He obtained a temporary go on note for 30 days from a new insurance company on April 16. It was found as a fact that on the expiration of the old policy he never intended to renew it with the old insurance company.His old insurance company sent him a temporary cover note for 15 days from April 6. Where parties conduct themselves in a manner which indicates that they consider themselves bound by an agreement between them, a contract will be held to have come into existence. In the case of Woon conjugation Lin v United Estate-Projects Berhad 1998 4 AMR 4052, the High Court held that the defendants, had authorized the plaintiffs offer to rent a kiosk in Subang Parade which was owned by the defendants.The Court referred to the following five expressions of conduct of the defendants first, they did not reply within 14 days (the involvement form stated that if the plainitifs application was not accepted the deposit would be refunded within 14 days) secondly, they accepted the date fees and paid this sum into their own account thirdly, they did not return this sum of money within 14 days as provided in the booking form fourthly, they could have spurned the tenancy agreement and the money which tended to(p) it upon receipt of these items, but they kept it and fifthly, instead of rejecting the plaintiffs offer, they negotiated with the plaintiff to relocate. In EMS Bowe (M) Sdn Bhd v KFC Holdings (M) Bhd & Anor 2000 1 AMR 677, the plaintiffs submitted a tender for some works to the defendants. Subsequently, the second defendant issued to the plaintiffs a draft letter of award for the works and had also instructed the plaintiffs to order in advance materials for the works.The plaintiffs ordered the materials but the award was given to another contractor. The High Court held that a draft offer acted upon by one party with the knowledge and concurrence of the other party has converted it into a written agreement and thus there was a valid and binding contract in this case. The next mode of acceptance is acceptance by acting conditions stipulated in offer. In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co 1892 2 QB 484 1893 1 QB 256, the Court of Appeal held that Mrs Carlill had indicated her acceptance by performing the conditions set out in the advertisement. In this c ase, Mrs Carlill had promise influenza after using the smoke balls in the manner specified in the advertisement.The defendants unveiling that Mrs Carlill did not inform them of her intention to accept their offer of the reward was rejected by the Court. It was held that Mrs Carlill had accepted the offer by performing the conditions stated in the offer. This mode of acceptance is recognised in s 8 of the Contracts Act that performance of the conditions of a proposal is an acceptance of the proposal. There is also acceptance by quiet. An issue that arises is whether tranquillize can amount to an acceptance. In Fraser v Everett (1899) 2 SLJ 81 (1889) 4 Ky 512, the Court held that the defendant who had contracted for the transfer of scrip was authorise to obtain what he had bargained for and could not be compelled to accept a bearer-warrant.It was the plaintiffs contention that, by not replying to the brokers letter of April 25 intercommunicate him that the certificates were bei ng exchanged for bearer-warrants, the defendant must be taken to have waived this objection. The Court held that there is rule of law like the saying lock in gives consent applicable to mercantile contracts. In this case, the omission to reply does not constitute a waiver. In the case of Felthouse v Bindiey (1862) 11 CBNS 869 142 ER 1037, the plaintiff wrote to his nephew offering to buy the nephews one dollar bill and adding that If I hear no more about him, I consider the horse is mine at 301. 15s. The nephew did not reply and no money was paid. The horse remained in the nephews possession. hexad weeks afterwards, the defendant, an auctioneer who was employed by the nephew to sell his farming stock, was directed by the nephew to reserve the horse in question, as it had already been sold, but by mistake had put it up with the rest of the stock and sold it. The plaintiff sued for conversion of the horse and the issue arose whether there was -a concluded contract between the plaint iff and his nephew for the sale of the horse. The Court held that there was none. Although the nephew had intended to sell the horse to the plaintiff at the price at which the plaintiff had named, this was not communicated and silence did not amount to an acceptance. Willes J stated It stood an open offer he nephew in his own mind intended his uncle to have the horse at the price which he had named 15s but he had not communicated such intention to his uncle, or done anything to bind himself . In the case of Re Selectmove Ltd 1995 2 All ER 531, CA the Court of Appeal gave its view that silence could be interpreted as acceptance in exceptional circumstances. cock Gibson LJ stated where the offeree himself indicates that an offer is to be taken as accepted if he does not indicate to the contrary by an ascertainable time, he is pioneer to speak if he does not want an agreement to be concluded. I see no reason in principle why that should not be an exceptional circumstance such that th e offer can be accepted by silence. But it is unnecessary to express a concluded view on this point.Lastly is the mode of acceptance stipulated by the offeror. An offeror may prescribe the mode of acceptance. In Manchester Diocesan Council for raising v Commercial & General Investments Ltd, 1970 1 WLR241, Buckley J laid guidelines on this matter. If an offeror stipulates by the terms of his offer that it may, or that it shall, be accepted in a particular manner a contract results as soon as the offeree does the stipulated act, whether it has come to the notice of the offeror or not. In such a case the offeror conditionally waives either expressly or by implication the normal requirement that acceptance must be communicated to the offeror to conclude a contract.If an offeror, who by the terms of his offer insists on acceptance in a particular manner, he is entitled to insist that he is not bound unless acceptance is effected or communicated in that precise way, although if the other party communicates his acceptance in some other way, the offeror may by conduct or otherwise waive his right to insist on the prescribed method of acceptance. In the case of in Manchester Diocesan Council of Education was referred to in Yates Building Co Ltd v RJ Pulleyn & Sons (York) Ltd. In this case, the respondents granted the appellants options to purchase three portions of land. The option clause shall be exercisable by notice in writing such notice to be sent by registered or recorded delivery post to the registered office of Pulleyns or the offices of their said solicitors. However, this notice was sent by ordinary post and not by registered or recorded delivery post.It arrived before the expiry date but the respondents solicitors replied that the requirement that the notice be sent by registered or recorded delivery post had not been- carry through and returned the cheque. Lord Denning MR held that where the offeror has prescribed a particular method of acceptance, but no t in terms insisting that only acceptance in that mode shall be binding, acceptance communicated to the offeror by any other mode which is no less advantageous to him will conclude the contract. In conclusion, acceptance should be communicated and there are various modes of communication of an acceptance. This is to chequer that the communication of acceptance is complete and there is a valid contract between two parties.

Kate Chopin’s the Awakening Essay

The Awakening, Edna Pontellier is caught by the contradictions between the way others see her and the way she sees herself. The novella is a story narrating her awakening and discovery of self. In short, Mrs. Pontellier was beginning to pick up her position in the universe as a human being, and to certify her relations as an individual to the world within and about her. How a couple of(prenominal) of us ever emerge from the beginning The narrator is remarking at Ednas boldness and uniqueness as an independent woman on a quest for self-discovery.And the narrator also points out How many souls perish in the beginnings tumult which serves to predict the chaos that comes about as Ednas aw arness grows and can also be read as a remark foreshadowing her death. The female role that involves bearing children and being a perfect wife is also an important aspect of the society represented in The Awakening. While this lifestyle suits someone like Adele Ratignolle, Edna finds it unbearab le and oppressive.She loves Robert and he inspires her, but her awakening at Grand Isle was complex She does non simply find a young love interest, she finds a new way of appreciating and living life. Robert is more of an excuse and an occupation rather than a full explanation for her transformation. Even though Ednas awakening mean she suffers from the resulting self-awareness, the year of joy and understanding that accompanies this suffering is worth more to her than a lifetime of the semi-conscious submission that defined her former existence. The years that are departed seem like dreamsif one might go on sleeping and dreamingbut to wake up and findoh well maybe it is better to wake up after all, even to suffer, rather than to sojourn a dupe to illusions all ones life. According to Edna, to remain with self-awareness offers an existence far richer than a life lived according to the restricting illusions that are imposed by the expectations of others.

Re-organization and Layoff- Issue Paper Essay

fuss Identification and formulation will be reviewed use the aggroup up discussion from Week 2. The paper will re-start the issue constitute the difficulty develop why it is the under untruth problem Reflect on the group collaboration process in defining the problem and Explain how a clearly defined problem could help to find the solutions.Summarize The IssueThe problem presented in article by Bouw, Mis wieldd Lay dispatchs deal go Horribly Wrong, is the lack of proper and well-managed policy around employee lay-offs. Most managers ar trained to handle a corporate crisis. Employers should approach any ruminate losses with caution and al flairs be respectful. Companies should consider whether demarcation losses argon necessary and the impact on operations internally, and how clients and contractors view it externally. Companies fate to make sure they argon following the law when it comes to laying off staff, including paying out severance as required by severally provin ce based on an employees years of service. (2013)Identify The occupationSome reasons that a company would look at reorganization and layoffs would be that the sales of that company deal dropped below what they were projecting. To help with costs they whitethorn look at laying people off and then reorganizing the employees that are left to help ensure that the internal structure remains in tact to ensure that the company continues to run smoothly. Most companies see layoffs as a way to save m one and only(a)y, however more or less times this is not the case due to the things that the company has to pay out to the employees that were let go. Alternatives to cable cuts include transferring staff to other departments, using fewer contract workers, or cutting wages. Whether its a bound, where the employees job is eliminated, or a layoff, where the employee loses the job for a certainperiod of time, a companys handling of it can have consequences.Explain Why This is the Underlying Pro blemIf sales are lower then anticipate there efficiency be a bigger problem then just lying off people. However, that is definitely where you should start, but employers need to stick to the rules around termination and ensure the reasons are clear. The negative impact the event can have on employee morale, which in turn can hurt productivity. Its traumatic to the remaining staff can create fear and resentment. To help manage the disruption, companies need to be compassionate and transparent about why the job losses occurred. If management handles it in a benevolent way it can boost their image as an employer, staff feel motivated and they tire outt live in fear. Layoff plan moves forward at GE Transportation, By Jim Martin demonstrates, that after unsuccessful lobbying and failed negotiations aimed at saving jobs, the company plan for its first round of layoffs.The pink slips were to be distributed Monday, giving employees one-week notice of their layoff. GE Transportation, sai d about 50 employees was expected to retire instead of pickings a layoff. While each retirement had the potential to spare one layoff, Duke said he didnt try to influence anyones decision. In a offerment from Erickson, the company ack instantlyledged the significance of the job cuts. We are taking this difficult step to meet an increasingly challenging securities industry that requires us to reduce costs and improve flexibility to maintain our competitiveness, she said. We visualise how hard this action is for everyone affected, including families and the broader community. She said the company is working closely with the state Department of Labor & Industrys Rapid Response team to help employees who lose their jobs. (Martin, 2013, Page 1)Reflect On The Group coaction Process in Defining the ProblemEffectively managing group decision-making has tether requirements (1) an appropriate leadership style, (2) the constructive use of disagreement and conflict, and (3) the enhancement of creativity. The most constructive type of conflict is cognitive conflict, or differences in perspectives or judgments about issues. In contrast, affective conflict is emotional and directed at other people. The dialectic goes a step beyond devils advocacyby requiring a structured debate about both conflicting courses of action. The dialectic goes a step beyond devils advocacy by requiring a structured debate about two conflicting courses of action. Custom-made solutions are necessary, so the group must be creative in generating ideas. The leader of a decision-making body must get down to minimize process-related problems.How a Clearly Defined Problem Could Help picture The SolutionsThe first stage in the decision-making process is to recognize that a problem exists and must be solved. Typically, a manager realizes some discrepancy amid the current state (the way things are) and a desired state (the way things ought to be). Such discrepanciessay, in organizational or unit pe rformancewhitethorn be detected by comparing current performance against (1) old performance, (2) the current performance of other organizations or units, or (3) future expected performance as determined by plans and forecasts. Recognizing that a problem or opportunity exists is only the beginning of this stage. The decision maker must quail at in deeper and attempt to diagnose the situation. The following questions are useful to collect and answer in this stage. The problem may be an opportunity that ask to be exploited a gap between what the organization is doing now and what it can do to create a more positive future. In that case, decisions involve choosing how to seize the opportunity. (Bateman, 2013, Page)Critical thinking plays a major affair in the decision making process. Problem Identification and formulation assist in managements ability find custom solutions using a creative generation.ReferenceBateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (2013). Management Leading & collaborati ng in a competitive world (10th ed.). New York, NY McGraw-Hill. Bouw, B. (2013, June 28). Mismanaged layoffs can go horribly misemploy. The Globe and Mail, B.14. Martin, J. (2013, November 3). Layoff plan moves forward at GE Transportation. McClatchy Tribune Business News, n/a.

Birth of Witricity Technology Essay

1. INTRODUCTIONIn this era of rulernization, electric auto activeal postal code has become the cup of life. A moment without electrical strength clear ups your thinking go dry. The major(ip) artificial lake of conventional form of electricity is through wires. The continuous research and gear upment has brought forward a major breakthrough, which provides electricity without the medium of wires. This wonder baby is called Witricity. There be authoritative small but very intakeful discoeries made in history, which mixed bagd the domain forever, Newtons gravitational law, Watts steam engine, Thomsons bulb and many more(prenominal). But a renaissance occurred with the invention of electrocharismatic Waves by Max strong. Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose successfully mystifyd electro magnetized waves having wavelength in the clench of 5mm to 25 mm. indeedceforth an Italian scientist named Marconi succeeded in institutionaliseting electro magnetized waves up to a outmatch of som e(prenominal) miles. And with this there started a new era called receiving set applied science.To sidereal day, as we finish see the word receiving set is common in day to day life. receiving set communication has made the world smaller. Al nigh severally and everything is radio receiver or cordless. Cordless mo usage, cordless keyboard, satellitecommunication, mobiles, cordless micro mobilizes and headph hotshots, radio internet service i.e. WI-FI, etc. And these necessitate definitely increased the monetary standard of living. In fact it dates back to the 19th century, when Nikola Tesla single-valued function conduction-establish remainss instead of rapport magnetised lands to transference receiving set actor. As it is in Radiative mode, most of the Power was wasted and has less efficacy. Further, in 2005, Dave Gerding coined the term WiTricity which is being utilise by the MIT researchers today. Moreover, we all ar aw ar of the use of electrocharismatic beam of lights which is rather well kn birth for receiving set transfer of information. In addition, lasers have alike been utilise to transmit zip without wires.However, radio waves are not viable for ability transmittals because the nature of the radiation is much(prenominal) that it spreads across the place, resulting into a pear-shaped amount of radiations being wasted. Witricity is based upon coupled resonant objects to transfer attain-up-and-go amidst objects without wires. The system consists of a Witricity vector, and thingmajigs which act as receivers. Like radio receivers, the thingumabobs must be in range of the transmitter. Witricity will ensure that the cadre phones, laptops, iPods and separate designer thirsty devices get charged on their own, eliminating the train of plugging them in. Even better, because of Witricity some of the devices wont require batteries to operate which is a boon for the users of these devices.HISTORYIn 1825 William Sturgeo n invented the electromagnet, a conducting wire swatheped neighboring an iron core. The principle of EM summoning that a changing magnetic field fire induce an electrical current in an nigh wire was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Combining these ii discoveries, Nicholas Joseph Callan was the evaporatener to demonstrate the infection and reception of electrical zip fastener without wires. Callans 1836 inference genus Helix apparatus consisted of ii insulated ringlet butterflys called the primary and fleckary windings both put round a common iron core. A shelling intermittently affiliated to the primary would induce a voltage in the eight-day certifyary ca utilise a spark to jump across its discontinue terminals.In an conclusion coil or electrical transformer, which can have either an iron core or an standard pressure core, the transmission of brawn examines place by artless electromagnetic coupling through a process known as mutual foundation. W iththis system it is possible to transmit and receive nothing over a considerable distance. However, to draw evidential super force-out in that way, the two inductors must be located moderately bordering unneurotic. If resonant coupling is use, where inductors are tuned to a mutual frequency, solid major originator whitethorn be transmitted over a range of many meters. In 1864 James Clark Maxwell mathematically modeled the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation.Some early sour in the area of cipher transmission via radio waves was done in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz who performed experiments that formalize Maxwells mathematical model. Hertzs apparatus for generating electromagnetic waves is generally acknowledged as the first radio transmitter. A some long time later Guglielmo Marconi worked with a modified form of the Hertz-wave transmitter, the main expediency being the addition of an elevated conductor and a ground connection. two of these elements can be traced back to the 1749 work of Benjamin Franklin and that of Mahlon Loomas in 1864. Nikola Tesla in any case invented radio transmission and reception but unlike Marconi, Tesla knowing his own transmitter one with motive-processing capability some five orders-of-magnitude greater than those of its predecessors.He would use this resembling coupled-tuned-circuit oscillator to implement his conduction-based susceptibility transmission method as well. Both of these no-cables methods employ a minimum of four tuned circuits, two at the transmitter and two at the receiver. As radio technologies were being create during the early 1900s, researchers further investigated these different transmission methods. The goal was simply to generate an effect locally and detect it at a distance. Around the similar time, efforts began to major part more significant loads than the lavishly-resistance sensitive devices that were being apply to simply detect the received energy.2. EVOLUTION OF WITRICITY 2.1 INVENTORS OF WITRICITYThe inventors of Witricity are the researchers from the team from momma Institute of Technology. They are the people who had coined the phrase of Witricity and this invention can change the way electricity is used today. With Witricity, the tangle of cables, plugs and charters thatnormally clutter lieus can be rid of. Prof. Marin Soljacic provided the inspiration for the experiment and invention of Witricity. It was while standing(a) in the kitchen one night, that on staring at his mobile phone that he had thought it would be nice if his mobile phone would take elevator care of its own charging instead of him having to periodically charge it.He then tried out his experiment using two coils of copper, where one was machine-accessible to a receiver, and the other to a transmitter. With the religious service of these two coils of copper, the inventors of Witricity managed to transmit baron across seven feet through the air to instantly light up a light b ulb. Though Witricity worked only distances up till 9 feet at its inception, the inventors believed that it was possible to charge a battery that was located at a distance of a few yards from the power starting time that was connected to the receiving coil. They state that it would be sufficient to place a semen in each room to provide power to the whole house.2.2. BIRTH OF WITRICITY TECHNOLOGYThe experimental design consisted of two copper coils, each a self-resonant system. unrivalled of the coils, connected to an AC power supply, was the resonant source. The other coil, the resonant mesmerize device, was connected to a 60 watt light bulb. The power source and capture device were suspended in mid-air with nylon thread, at distances that ranged from a few centimeters to over 2.5 meters (8.2 ft). Not only was the light bulb illuminated, but the conjectural predictions of high efficiency over distance were proven experimentally. By placing motley objects between the source and capture device, the team demonstrated how the magnetic uprise field can transfer power through certain materials and around metallic obstacles. Thus Prof. Soljacics dream of finding a method to wirelessly connect mobile electric devices to the existing electric football field was realized. Witricity Corp. was concisely launched to carry this applied science forward from the MIT laboratories to commercial production.2.3. FUNDAMENTALS OF WITRICITY TECHNOLOGYWitricity engineering science is transferring electric energy or power over distancewithout wires with the basics of electricity and magnetic attraction, and work our way up to the wireless engineering science. galvanizingityThe electric current of electrons (current) through a conductor (like a wire), or charges through the automatic teller machine (like lightning).A convenient way for energy to get from one place to another(prenominal)MagnetismA fundamental force of nature, which causes certain types of materials to attr act or repel each other Oscillating magnetic fields deviate with time, and can be generated by alternating current (AC) flowing on a wire. The strength, nowion, and extent of magnetic fields are often de billetated and visualized by drawings of the magnetic field lines.Fig.1 magnetic Induction electromagnetismA term for the interdependence of time- variable electric and magnetic fields. For example, it turns out that an hover magnetic field produces an electric field and an vibrate electric field produces a magnetic field.Magnetic InductionA loop or coil of semiconducting material like copper, carrying an Alternating current (AC), is a very effective structure for generating or capturing magnetic field. If a conductive loop is connected to an AC power source, it will generate an oscillate magnetic field in the vicinity of the loop A fleck conducting loop, brought destruction enough to the first, whitethorn capture some portion of that oscillating magnetic field, which in t urn, generates or induces an electric current in the second coil. The current generated in the second coil whitethorn be used to power devices.Energy/Power CouplingEnergy coupling occurs when an energy source has a promoter of transferring energy to another object. One simple example is a locomotive pulling a train carthe mechanical coupling between the two enables the locomotive to pull the train. Magnetic coupling occurs when the magnetic field of one object acts with a second object and induces an electric current in or on that object. In this way, electric energy can be transferred from a power source to a powered device.Fig.2 Illustration presentation rapport sonorousnessResonance can be thought of as the natural frequency at which energy can most efficiently be added to an oscillating system. A playground swing is an example of an oscillating system involving potential energy and kinetic energy.Resonant Magnetic CouplingMagnetic coupling occurs when two objects rallying e nergy through their varying or oscillating magnetic fields. Resonant coupling occurs when the natural frequencies of the two objects are approximately the same.Fig.3 Illusration showing the working of WiTricity3. HOW WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY IS DIFFERENT THAN OTHER TECHNOLOGIES.3.1. TRADITIONAL magnetic summoningWitricity technology for power transfer appears to be traditional magnetic induction, such as is used in power transformers, where conductive coils transmit power to each other wirelessly, over very short distances. In a transformer, an electric current running in a sending coil (or primarywinding) induces another current in a receiving coil (or secondary winding). The two coils must be very close together, and may even overlap, but the coils do not make direct electrical contact with each other.However, the efficiency of the power modify in traditional magnetic induction systems drops by orders of magnitude when the distance between the coils becomes prominentr than their s izes. In addition to electric transformers, other devices based on traditional magnetic induction include rechargeable electric toothbrushes, and inducive charging pads which require that the object being charged be rigid at present on top of, or very close to, the base or pad supplying the power. The power exchange efficiency of some induction systems is improved by utilizing resonant circuits. These so called resonantly enhanced induction techniques are used in certain medical implants and high-frequency RFids.Witricity founding technical team was the first to discover that by specially designing the magnetic resonators, one could achieve strong coupling and highly efficient energy exchange over distances much larger than the size of the resonator coils, distances very large compared to traditional schemes.3.2. WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY IS DIFFERENT THAN RADIATIVE POWER TRANSFERWitricity technology for power transfer is non-radiative and relies on near-field magnetic coupling. some other techniques for wireless power transfer rely on radiative techniques, either broadcasted or narrow glow (direct radiation) transmission of radio, or light waves. Broadcasted radiation of radio frequency energy is commonly used for wireless information transfer because information can be transmitted over a wide area to seven-fold users. The power received by each radio or wireless receiver is miniscule, and must be amplified in a receiving unit using an external power supply.Because the vast majority of radiated power is wasted into shift space, radio transmission is considered to be an inefficient means of power transfer. parentage that while more energy can be supplied to the receiver by cranking up the power of the transmitters in these systems, such high power levels may pose a skillfulty hazard and may interfere with otherradiofrequency devices. signaled radiation, using highly directional antennas, is another means of using radio transmission to beam energy from a sou rce to a receiver. However, directed radiationin particular microwave radiationmay interact strongly with living organisms and certain metallic objects. such energy transfer methods may pose safety hazards to people or objects that obstruct the line-of- cumulus between the transmitter and receiver. These limitations make directed radio transmission impractical for delivering substantial levels of wireless power in a true consumer, commercial, or industrial application. In fact, defense researchers are exploring the use of directed energy systems to deliver lethal doses of power to targets in space and on the battlefield.3.3. WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY IS DIFFERENT THAN MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)MRI machines use magnetic resonance imaging to produce diagnostic images of soft meander. Many people assume that Witricity Resonant Magnetic Coupling must be similar to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology, however, the technologies are similar in name only.MRI is, as its name sugg ests, a technology for using magnetism as a basis for diagnostic imaging of soft tissue in the human frame. It utilizes a strong DC magnet to bespeak the magnetic fields of atoms inwardly tissues, and radio frequency fields to make those atoms in a selective way, so that tissues and structures can be imaged clearly. The resonance referred to in MRI refers to the resonance of atomic structures. MRI is not considered to be a method for wireless power transfer.4. STRIKING FEATURES OF WITRICITY4.1. HIGHLY redolent(p) STRONG COUPLING PROVIDES HIGH EFFICIENCY OVER DISTANCEWitricity mode of wireless power transfer is highly efficient over distances ranging from centimeters to several meters. efficacy may be defined as the amount of operative electrical energy that is available to the device beingpowered, divided by the amount of energy that is drawn by the Witricity source. In many applications, efficiency can exceed 90%. And Witricity sources only transfer energy when it is extrem ityed. When a Witricity powered device no longer needs to capture supernumerary energy, the Witricity power source will mechanically reduce its power inhalation to a power saving idle state.4.2. goose egg TRANSFER VIA MAGNETIC NEAR FIELD CAN PENETRATE AND WRAP AROUND OBSTACLESThe magnetic near field has several properties that make it an excellent means of transferring energy in atypical consumer, commercial, or industrial environment. Most common construction and furnishing materials, such as wood, gypsum wall board, plastics, textiles, glass, brick, and concrete are essentially vapourous to magnetic fieldsenabling Witricity technology to efficiently transfer power through them. In addition, the magnetic near field has the ability to wrap around many metallic obstacles that might otherwise block the magnetic fields.WiTricity applications engineering team will work with you to address the materials and environmental factors that may influence wireless energy transfer in your app lication4.3. NON-RADIATIVE ENERGY TRANSFER IS SAFE FOR PEOPLE AND ANIMALSWitricity technology is a non-radiative mode of energy transfer, relying instead on the magnetic near field. Magnetic fields interact very weakly with biological organismspeople and animalsand are scientifically regarded to be safe. Professor Sir John Pendry of Imperial College London, a world renowned physicist, explainsThe body genuinely responds strongly to electric fields, which is why you can cook a chicken in a microwave .But it doesnt respond to magnetic fields. As far as we know the body has almost adjust response to magnetic fields in terms of the amount of power it absorbs. Evidence of the safety of magnetic fields is illustrated by the widespread word meaning and safety of household magnetic induction cook tops.Through trademarked design of the Witricity source, electric fields are almost completely contained within the source. This design results in levelsof electric and magnetic fields which fa ll well within regulatory guidelines. Thus Witricity technology doesnt give try to radio frequency emissions that interfere with other electronic devices, and is not a source of electric and magnetic field levels that pose a lay on the line to people or animals. Limits for human exposure to magnetic fields are set by regulatory bodies such as the FCC, ICNIRP, and are based on broad scientific and medical consensus. Witricity technology is being veritable to be fully compliant with applicable regulations regarding magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation.4.4. SCALABLE DESIGN ENABLES SOLUTIONS FROM MILL WATTS TO KILOWATTSWitricity systems can be designed to come up to a broad range of power levels. The bene touchs of highly efficient energy transfer over distance can be achieved at power levels ranging from mill watts to several kilowatts. This enables Witricity technology to be used in applications as diverse as powering a wireless mouse or keyboard (mill watts) to rechargin g an electric passenger Vehicle (kilowatts).Witricity technology operates in a load succeeding(a) mode, transferring only as much energy as the powered device requires.4.5. FLEXIBLE GEOMETRY ALLOWS WITRICITY DEVICES TO BE EMBEDDED INTO OEM PRODUCTSWitricity technology is being designed so that it can be easily enter into a wide mixing of products and Systems. The physics of resonant magnetic coupling enables Witricity engineers to design power sources and devices of varying shapes and sizes, to match both the packaging requirements and the power transfer requirements in a given OEM application. Witricity has designed power capture devices compact enough to fit into a cell phone5. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES5.1 ADVANTAGESNo need of line of sight In witricity power transmission there is no need of line of sight between transmitter and receiver. That is power transmission can be possible if there is any obstructions like wood, metal, or other devices were placed in between the trans mitter and receiver. Theres no need of power cables and batteries Witricity replaces the use of power cables and batteries. Does not interfere with radio waves and boilers suit Wastage of power is small Electromagnetic waves would tunnel, they would not propagate through air to be absorbed or dissipated.So the wastage is small. Negative health implications By the use of resonant coupling, wave lengths produced are far lower and thusly make it harmless. Highly efficient than electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic induction system can be used for wireless energy transfer only if the primary and secondary are in very close proximity. Resonant induction system is one million times as efficient as electromagnetic induction system. Its less dear(p) The components of transmitter and receivers are cheaper. So this system is less costly.5.2. DISADVANTAGESWireless power transmission can be possible only in few meters. Efficiency is only about 40%.As witricity is in development stag e, lot of work is done for improving the efficiency and distance between transmitter and receiver.6. WITRICITY APPLICATIONSWitricity wireless power transfer technology can be applied in a wide variety of applications and environments. The ability of our technology to transfer power safely, efficiently, and over distance can improve products by making them more convenient, reliable and environmentally friendly Witricity technology can be used to provide6.1. DIRECT WIRELESS POWERWhen all the power a device needs is provided wirelessly, and no batteries are required. This mode is for a device that is always used within range ofits Witricity power source.6.2. AUTOMATIC WIRELESS CHARGINGWhen a device with rechargeable batteries charges itself while still in use or at rest, without requiring a power cord or battery replacement. This mode is for a mobile device that may be used both in and out of range of its Witricity power source. Witricity technology is designed for Original Equipment M anufacturers (OEMs) to embed directly in their products and systems.Witricity technology will make your productsMore Convenient1) No manual recharging or changing batteries.2) slide by unsightly, unwieldy and costly power cords.More Reliable3) Never run out of battery power.4) Reduce product failure rates by fixing the weakest link flexing wiring and mechanical interconnects.5) More Environmentally social6) Reduce use of disposable batteries.7) Use efficient electric grid power directly instead of inefficient battery charging6.3. CONSUMER ELECTRONICSAutomatic wireless charging of mobile electronics (phones, laptops, game controllers, etc.) in home, car, office, Wi-Fi hotspots while devices are in use and mobile.Fig.4 Electronic devices that can be powered up using Witricity.Direct wireless powering of stationary devices (flat screen TVs, digital picture frames, home theater accessories, wireless loud speakers, etc.) eliminating expensive custom wiring, unsightly cables and wall-w art powersupplies. Direct wireless powering of desktop PC peripherals wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, speakers, display, etc eliminating disposable batteries and unskilful cabling. IndustrialDirect wireless power and communication interconnections across rotating and lamentable joints (robots, packaging machinery, assembly machinery, machine tools) eliminating costly and failure-prone wiring. Direct wireless power and communication interconnections at points of use in harsh environments (drilling, mining, underwater, etc.) where it is impractical or impossible to run wires.6.4. TRANSPORTATIONAutomatic wireless charging for future mark and all-electric passenger and commercial fomites, at home, in parking garages, at transcend depots, and at remote kiosks. Direct wireless power interconnections to replace costly fomite wiring harnesses and slip rings.6.5. OTHER APPLICATIONSDirect wireless power interconnections and automatic wireless charging for implantable medical devices ( ventricular assist devices, pacemaker, defibrillator, etc.) Automatic wireless charging and for high tech military systems (battery powered mobile devices, covert sensors, unmanned mobile robots and aircraft, Direct wireless powering and automatic wireless charging of smart cards. Direct wireless powering and automatic wireless charging of consumer appliances, mobile robots, etc.Fig.5 Illustration showing Witricity7. demonstrationWitricity engineering is often a non-radiative method of power switch, relying as an pick within the magnetic close to field. Magnetic fields work together extremely weakly with organic organismspeople andanimalsand are scientifically considered to get safe. WiTricity merchandise are becoming designed to comply with applicable auspices requirements and regulations. Therefore witricity is know-how safe. Witricity can switch energy is dependent to the supply and receivers. if it really is comparatively shut to one yet another, and may exceed 95%.Efficiency is mostly determined through the length amongst the ability supply and assume machine, about the other hand, the form may perhaps affect the efficiency. it may switch the facility by means of walls as well as.Conventional magnetic induction calls for that the ability resource and seize unit be quite near to one a lot more typically inside millimeters to exchange ability efficiently. Witricity Technology is depending on sharply resonant sturdy coupling, and is specially capable to exchange strength effectively even in the fount the distances amongst the ability supply and seize gadget are many cause the dimension of your products themselves.8. FUTURE SCOPEMITs Witricity is only 40 to 45% efficient and according to Soljacic, they have to be twice as efficient to compete with the traditional chemical batteries. The teams next target area is to get a robotic vacuum or a laptop working, charging devices placed anywhere in the room and even robots on factory floors .The researchers are also currently working on the health issues related to this purpose and have utter that in another three to five years time, they will come up with a Witricity system for commercial use. TROY, Mich. Delphi self-propelled has reached an agreement with Witricity Corp., a wireless energy transfer technology provider, to develop automatic wireless charging products for hybrid and electric vehicles. The collaboration between the two companies will help establish a global infrastructure of safe and convenient charging options for consumer and commercial electric vehicles. This is groundbreaking technology that could enable self-propelling manufacturers to integrate wireless charging directly into the design of their hybrid and electric vehicles, said Randy Sumner, director, global hybrid vehicle development, Delphi Packard Electrical/Electronic Architecture.Delphis expertise in global engineering, validation and manufacturing coupled with Witricity patentedwireless energy transfe r technology uniquely positions us to make wireless charging of electric vehicles a reality. Sumner said the wireless charging system would involve no plugs or charging cords. Drivers would simply park their electric vehicle over a wireless energy source that sits on the garage floor, or is embedded in a paved parking spot. The system will automatically transfer power to the battery charger on the vehicle. According to Eric Giler, fountainhead executive officer, Witricity, their wireless system can already transfer over 3,300 watts enough to fully charge an electric car at the same rate as most residential plug-in chargers. Charging an electric car should be as easy as parking it in your garage or parking spot, Giler said.Witricity high efficiency wireless energy transfer technology is ideally suited for electric vehicle charging, and our partnership with Delphi will help to quickly get this technology deployed in OEM vehicles and infrastructure projects worldwide. Delphi can cou plet the gap between the laboratory and the highway by providing E/E systems integration expertise, a global manufacturing and engineering footprint and high-voltage, high-power components specifically engineered for the hybrid and electric vehicles of today and tomorrow, Sumner said.Wireless charging technology will need to co-exist with plug-in charging solutions, Sumner added, so that electric vehicle drivers have the ability to charge their vehicle when they are away from their wireless charging source. Delphi also makes a Portable Electric Vehicle Charger that fits conveniently in the trunk of an electric vehicle. The user-friendly, UL-listed charging system plugs into any standard 120-volt outlet to enable safe electric vehicle battery charging at home or away. The charging unit can also be integrated into stationary charging applications.Fig.6 Delphis solution for charging the cars using witricity technologyREFERENCES1 Change your electric vehicle wirelessly with Fulton innov ations eCoupled technology by Yuka Yoneda. 2 MIT Witricity Not So Original After all by Gary Peterson. 3 MIT team experimentally demonstrates wireless power transfer, potentially useful for powering laptops, cell phones withoutcords, Franklin Hadley, Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies. 4 www.witricity.com, Wireless Electricity Delivered Over Distance. 5 MIT Wizards Zap Electricity Through The Air by Katherine Noyes. 6 MIT Makes Breakthrough in Wireless Electricity by Karen M.Cheung.

Drugs and Society Essay

1b. List and describe briefly the major structures of the creative thinker, as presented in your textbook, including the function of those elements that ar most related to psychoactive medicate reaction. The first layer of the intellect is the cortex which covers the top and sides of the brain. This area controls cerebrate and language, and this area will be less active when under tranquillizing doses. The basal ganglia are located underneath the cortex and it is made up of by the striatum. The striatum controls muscle t unmatched and is part of the dopamine way which is a po cardinaltial transport highway for psychoactive medicines.The hypothalamus is at the home plate of the brain and serves as liaison between the brain and hypophysis gland. The pituitary hormonal output is tortuous in behaviors much(prenominal) as victuals and temperature regulation. The limbic sy radix affects emotion, location memory, and physical activity. Along the brain stem are the medulla, mi dbrain, and pons from which contain the bulk of neurons that create dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The lower brain stem controls vomiting and respiratory functions. If affected, the respiratory function can be suppressed by drugs.1c. Describe the life cycle of a normal neurotransmitter.A cell membrane with the up ask of a particular predecessor absorbs amino acids to create a neurotransmitter. The amino acids undergo synthesis with a reaction with enzymes to become a neurotransmitter. Once created, the neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles until they are released into the synapse. Once released, the neurotransmitters will attempt to attach to the membrane of neurons. If the neurotransmitter does not shed it to the neuron, then it will either absorb in the originating cell or be metabolized within the synapse.2b. Differentiate between drug disposition tolerance, behavioral tolerance, and pharmacodynamics tolerance, and provide reasons wherefore these concepts should be interpreted into account when determining the effectuate of a drug. Drug disposition tolerance is defined as the make up of the drugs rate of metabolism or removal. The procedurer whitethorn increase the amount of a drug taken overdue to the drug being metabolized too quickly or being removed from the eubstance. A person whitethorn compensate their behavior when exposed to a drug overtime such as learning to drive while intoxicated. The baulk is subdued and this is known as behavioral tolerance. Pharmacodynamics tolerance is the main indorser to the need to increase the dosage of a drug in browse to stay off withdrawal symptoms. The user does not feel the same make of a dosage so the dosage must be change magnitude in order to get the same feeling.2d. Provide several particular in the flesh(predicate) and societal steps you would recommend in an effort to reduce the likelihood of adverse reactions to drugs taken in combination. The largest deficit that can be myst ifyd to avoid adverse reactions to drug taken in combination is to avoid doing it all such as alcohol and other depressants. Individuals that need to take multiple medications such as person with diabetes and high blood force need to be care fully monitored and educated on the effects of the medications distributively and the effects of the medications when combined.3b. Explain the basic rationale and theoretical foundations for the extensive use of amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder). ADHD individuals have deficits involved with the functions of executive control within the brain. This control center affects concentration, hyperactivity, and learning. Amphetamines have been shown to produce a calming effect upon the individual from the amphetamines ability to increase brain catecholamine activity whereas ADHD individuals suffer from catecholamine deficits in the prefrontal cortex.3c. Provide your personal viewpoint on major concerns abo ut ADHD diagnoses and the efficacy of drug treatments that have led to recent controversy. The basis of diagnoses of ADHD has not been fully researched due to any widely accepted knowledge as to why stimulants are effective in treating hyperactivity. The causes of ADHD are still not thoroughly understood. There have also been non-stimulant drugs that have been shown to be bonny as effective as stimulants such as Strattera and Atomoxetine. I study that ADHD itself is a complicated issue that requires multiple points of attack such as the use of stimulant and non-stimulant drugs. What may work on one individual may not work on another.4a. Provide recite of your understanding of the ways in which time course events of barbiturate and benzodiazepine actions contribute to the onset of psychological and/or physical dependence. Barbiturate are fast acting drugs that may work within fifteen minutes and stay in the carcass for up to three hours. Due to the rapid activity of the barbitur ates, they serve as a strong reinforcement to users due to the drug produced a in demand(p) effect quickly and leaving the body just as quickly. Benzodiazepine takes daylong to initialize, but also stay in the body for up to ten hours. Barbiturates are taken in higher doses more rapidly, while Benzodiazepine is taken at lower does. Withdrawal symptoms of barbiturates from chronic symptoms are severe due to the rapidness the drug leaves the users body without the users body being able to adapt to the drug adequately.4b. Describe the key functions of gamma aminobutyric acid (g-aminobutryic acid) in producing the effects of various sedative-hypnotic agents, with specific reference to benzodiazepines. gamma aminobutyric acid is a neurotransmitter that is found in CNS areas and deals with repressive functions. Benzodiazepine molecules are strongly attracted to the GABA receptor sites and when bound to the GABA receptor, the Benzodiazepine molecules will increase the inhibitory effects of GABA on the receptors.

Preschool Graduation Speech Essay

Thank you all for coming on this special twenty-four hours to celebrate the graduation of the Pre-K Rockstars class of 2011. This is a monumental occasion in the lives of our children. It is also a time to recognize the outstanding work and run on of all the staff hither, the p arents, and most of all the students. Just looking some at the bright faces says so much about the culture here at our school. Each morning, my marrow squash just melts, when I see those smiling faces that are followed by their warm embraces which continually remind me of why I love teaching and how lucky I am to be a stop of their lives. I am so impressed with their progress this category and they have grown to see curbing as fun, exciting with a passion that will help them as they advance with their education. Looking ahead, our children are very well equipped to take on the next part of their personal and educational lives. They have formed have a absolute foundation and I feel especially confident that we have habituated our children a great start in life with the get alongledge of many a(prenominal) priceless lessons. So, To the Class of 2011, Pre-K Rockstars, My Chickadees challenge yourself have a kind heart enjoy learning give back to others laugh and love And be all you can beIn closing, I would uniform to practice this poem to my special chickadeesThis one is for you. To My Special Chickadees I want to let know,How much you mean to meAnd how fast the year did goPlease fix back to visit meAll through the years you grow,Try to learn and love all that you canThere is so much for you to knowIm glad I am your teacherIve come to love you so.I cant believe the quit is here.It is so hard to see you goThe one thing I tried to teach youto last your whole life through,Is to know that you invariably be my special chickadeesAnd theres is no one else like you So its with all my heartI send you on your way,with great hope and expectationsfor years of happiness and bliss to s tay.

How did government affect agriculture Essay

The uttermost of 1865-1900 was classified as an era of Republicans, where laissez-f atomic number 18 g overnments favored big businesses. Technology was significantly evolving, focusing mainly on urban manufacturing. raw technological advancements in farming were sold to the farmers at high prices and shipped at high clog grade. Also, the prices of cash crops dropped during this result, causing many farmers to live in poor conditions. In governing, the power of urban industry and big businesses overcame that of the pro-farming politicians. Technology, presidency insurance policy, and economic conditions in effect declined agribusiness politically, industrially, and economically. Impediments such(prenominal) as industrial issues, poor representation in government, and waning agricultural prices that the farmers were forced to face, made agriculture suffer greatly during the late 19th century.During this period of time, the U.S. was technologically evolving at a rapid rate. N ew inventions and advancements made life easier for the working class. Railroads, after spreading all over the nation, made any part of the estate accessible and expanded the subject area market. Document B displays that the years 1870-1890, the itemise of railroads in the nations increased massively. Also, the number of railroads with major land grants grew as well. At first glance, this change seems to afford benefited the farmers, to a greater extentover when actually did the opposite. It is true that railroads allowed the farmers to expand and have a dash to ship their harvest and cattle a lot faster to more than markets. However, greedy men like Cornelius Vanderbilt controlled the railroads. Extremely high freight rates made the farmers lose more than they expected.Likewise, the price of shipping, taxes, low buying prices, overrun, and cost of equipment, the farmer gained a mere profit. The technological advancements did make farming easier, but often were overly exp ensive for the farmer to afford. In history D, a farmer during a wheat harvest preferred to use a team of about 30 horses instead of the possibly motorized automatic harvester. New agricultural technology didnt table service much or non even as effective as old methods and also was too expensive so farmers chose to stick with the old methods. Technology seemed better when looked at, but not in reality when it was put to use. This is an example that can be characterized by the era named by Mark Twain, The Gilded AgeThe nations government policy at the time was laissez- spot or hands-off government. TheRepublicans were in power during this period and favored industry and the big businesses. Consequently, farmers had a poor representation in government both in-state and nationally. Agricultural process was made, but still were bound gains.For example, a law was carried through the Illinois legislature and then Supreme accost to limit the freight rates and it was passed (Document C). As you can see, it was a infinitesimal victory for the farmers and others, but still limited to only Illinois. Furthermore, the ones that contributed to the growth of agriculture were those part of the Populist party. The party consisted of people who favored the rights of the farmers. Several organizations were naturalised to favor the farmers. For example, the Grangers and the Farmers Alliance were organizations that allowed its members that shared common goals to organize and unite. In document G Mary Elizabeth Lease delivers a speech to the people, telling them that the government lied to the people and deceived them. She proves her argument with the crop price reductions and claims of overproduction.Also, the government had problems traffic with the Indians and the settling of agricultural acres for Americans (Document I). A huge controversy during this period was the issue of the gold vs. silver standard. The Populists of course wanted the silver standard, for rising p rices and to flood the economy. This would help out the farmers and miners out west. William Jennings Bryan claimed that the country depended on farmers and without them the country would fall. Also, that the country should be in favor of the farmers because they provide for the nation and are more important than the cities (Document J). The hand-off policy of the Republicans did not allow for much return of the nations economy and even let it suffer as did the farmers. Not only did the farmers suffer, but as well as the whole nation because of presidents such as Grant and Hayes.Economic conditions for the farmers were poor and no one was thither to help them. The farmers tried, but could not gain the silver standard they infallible to improve their positions and finance themselves. Moreover, the big businesses and pro-wealthy Republicans were in the way of the farmers and holding them back. In document A, one can see that as the farmers produced more and more to make more money, the price of the crop dropped as well, thus, leading to overproduction and loss of money. Even if the farmer wassuccessful, he would have to give up his success to the government and railroads with more power in the industry.Nevertheless, on articulation contracts were signed, for example the one in North Carolina shown by Document E where the farmer would sign away half of his net proceeds, leaving him with precisely anything. The farmer was left crippled in a nettlesome cycle. galore(postnominal) times, the cattle and crops were shipped to far away markets such as Chicago, and the transit fare would increase as the distance increase (Document F). This struck hard at the pockets of the farmers. Many farmers were left to starve, out of work, and poor. Additionally, the poor weather such as hail would ruin the crops or the businessmen would take the crops (Document H). Consequently, the economic conditions did not favor the farmer, even though they provided for the nation, they we re ruined by the people they help feed.This period part of the Gilded Age, America suffered because of a weak government policy and the big businesses had the real power. Unfortunately, the farmers were struck with the negative side cause that occurred from all this. American agriculture greatly declined, even though at first it seemed to have been benefited, it was industrially, politically, and economically destroyed and left in a tormenting cycle.

Interpretation of Family Life Education Essay

Family sprightliness Education has endured multiple evolutions, comments and criteria since its origins in modern-day family science between 1881 and 1920. Currently, Family Life Education has tightened the reigns of its purpose, created fundamental criteria and yet shut a dash leads itself to an assortment of interpretations. For the purpose of this paper, I volition endeavor to give my soul definition of Family Life Education based on course readings and seek, the manoeuver principle of FLE, a theoretical perspective that supports and, is most applicable to my definition of Family Life Education and, a personal philosophy of pedagogy.What does Family Life Education signify to me? Depending on the company you keep, this is a potentially nasty question. Within the realm of my present circle, the question does hold a living explanation. Family life sentence education has been signifi washbowlt in the historical information of several(prenominal) educational enterprises (a rcus senilis, vol. 1, 1993, p. 46) in that locationfore, lending itself to the family life passkey to select a jumper cable that best complements their own philosophies and paid preparation.The definition by the National Council on Family Relations (2006) sums up what FLE means to me, Family life education is the educational grounds to strengthen singular and family life done family perspective. The objective of family life education is to enrich and improve the quality of the individual and the family life. As a incoming professional in this distinctive field, I strive to possess the many a(prenominal) another(prenominal) characteristics of a well-rounded practiti 1r, including, but not limited to, die fellowship of the professional content and to function, when take in a multidisciplinary approach.As the possibilities to individual and family story are endless, the ability to draw from other disciplines is crucial. It is probable that when work with a family for i nstance that is struggling with an issue, the family life professional would need to expend an approach that incorporated all of Gardners bigeminal Intelligences (1983). In addition, it is alike important to note Family life educators gift used educational concepts as their solitary approach to multidisciplinaryintervention (Arcus, vol. 2, 1993, pg. 28) and this approach has created concern amongst scholars and professionals alike. To become multi disciplinary, Arcus (1993) offers that through the use of knowledge from a broader range of disciplines and through greater cooperation among the contributing disciplines, true multidisciplinary approach can be attained. As indicated previously, the composition of individual or family is infinite and special attention needs to be paid to issues of diversity.Within the profession of Family Studies, there is discovericular emphasis on valuing differences and respecting those distinctions (Arcus, vol. 2, 1993, pg. 28) further more than, creating potent working relationships with persons served. Lastly, to complete the puzzle of the well rounded practitioner, one must be able to utilize their own life experiences relevant to family life topics and to honestly accept those experiences as not to furnish insincere recommendations. To further personalize my definition of Family Life Education, I have compiled most additional ideas.It is unlikely that a professional in the field of Family Studies is wandering aimlessly without purpose or direction. Typically, they are a part of an brass that is providing services to individuals or families with a set of defined needs. Even more likely it is the responsibility of the professional to design, develop and deliver the services needed by means of effective syllabusming. The Family Life professional becomes the program and an effective program does not rest solely on content (Brindis & Davis, et al, 1998, part IV).The professional must mobilize for action by increasing s entiency and generating support of a program, assess the needs and assets of the populations served and build strong foundations that will serve to protect the potential of the program and last, but surely not least, design an effective Family Life Education program. Designing a impertinent or adapted family life education program frequently entails many planning and management issues. The development is easier when the concerns are planned for at the onset. theorise about(predicate) how to advocate for the program, especially in the face of statement. Expect controversy (Brindis & Davis, et al. 1998, sect. IV). Controversy or conflict is seguing to the subsequent topic, the guiding principles of Family Life Education. Intervention, the anti-conflict be proactive in a reactive world. Intervention by way of education, this statement, in my opinion is the guiding principle to family life education. No matter how you slice it, the opportunity to impart an intervention is endless. I ntervention can have many connotations.In day to day life it is regularly defined as an unwelcomed interference. For instance, a wife introduces an intervention for her substance abusing married man, of which does not want to admit to or take responsibility for his addiction. Therefore the husband would characterize the intervention as unwelcomed interference. For the purpose of family studies, the definition takes a neutral stance to denote the taking of expirely defined actions to lure change (Encarta English Dictionary). The change is expected to be positive, indicating harmony or affirmation.Societies evolve along divergent cultural, religious, historical, economic, geographical, and political paths. At any time, members of different societies view themselves and the world from distinctive perspectives. Yet global trends in communion and information dissemination, entertainment, and other economic and commercial exchanges always affect local anaesthetic realities, sometime s more than quite a little living in those localities fully understand. How children, adolescents, and adults are assigned roles ultimately reflects the convergence of such societal paths and global trends.The preceding statements have the potential to be segue ways and/or roadblocks to the family professional. The professional should establish family life education at an early age, to combat the flightiness of reaction and to introduce the idea of prevention, lessening the likelihood of ever intervening. The founding of a program that would counter negative or damaging societal outcomes should implement age appropriate curricula, especially when working solely with condition age children, which meets the developmental needs and matches backgrounds and life experiences of all individuals involved.What are ordinary interventions? As adapted from Family Health International (2001), Offer education and skill-building assume young person caretakers, including parents, extended f amily, or other adults such as teachers and youth workers. Engage youth themselves in program design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Ensure access to guidance and other services that respond to the special needs of the individual or family Augment collaboration and effective referrals among existing health and other development agencies and organizations.Coach program site managers, service supportrs, and others to improve their interactions with individuals and families Have clear goals, target populations, and indicators while building in monitoring and evaluation from the stemma of a project use such findings to improve strategies and services. The family life professional should strive to maintain balance and realistic programming and to ultimately provide information and activities that encourage skill development that is relevant and useful.Imparting a value system and norms when they are lacking or completely wanting(p) to an individual or family is an asset to the overall program, especially when follow through is a potential issue. A basic skill set is at least in place. Last but not least, ensure that your program is based on a solid theoretical model. Ability, Desire and potential difference Why MI possible action is relevant to Families Successful and unsuccessful people do not vary greatly in their abilities. They vary in their desires to reach their potential. John Maxwell During the tenure of this course, Family Study Methodologies, we have encountered many theories and how they are or have been significant to the field of Family Life Education. The theories have run the gamut from their birthplace in social theory and social therapy to a current state of post modern, contemporary status. As indicated by Lavee and Dollahite (1991), there is a weak link between theory and research in modern family science and they go further to say, from multiple points of view, it is imperative to copulate theory with research methods.Ther e are multiple approaches to theory and research in the family sciences (Sourcebook, pg. 17) and there is not one that is committed as the flagship theory to FLE. Rather the interplay between scholars, families and the socio-cultural context that surrounds them (Sourcebook, pg. 18). These connections should pay special attention to the odd quality of families in society and how these families function within their environment. It is necessary to ratify what I mean by theory within the field of family life education.As defined by Gibbs ( 1972, p.5),sourcebook p 20 theory is a set of logically interrelated statements in the form of empirical assertions about properties of infinite classes of events or things. This definition lends itself to the notion of a abstract framework, a theory that has not come full circle. Gardners theory of Multiple Intelligences fits this description. Although there are several intelligences define which possess a sound theoretical foundation, eight to be exact, there are additional intelligences hold in the wings for validation therefore supporting the notion of the conceptual framework.Gardners theory is relevant to family life education, in part collect to its flexible and expandable nature but mostly because the family is a phenomenal, liberal body that needs room to evolve, just as MI theory continues to do. References Brindis, C and Davis, L et al. (1998) Designing effective family life education programs. Advocatesforyouth. org. quaternity sections. Retrieved April 13, 2008, from www. advocateforyouthorg/PUBLICATIONS Lavee, Y. , & Dollahite, D. C. (1991) The linkage between theory and research in family science. Journal of jointure and the Family, 53, 361-373.

Outline of Chapter 2

chapter 2 chapter proscribedline module 5 Neurons The mickleonical Elements of Behavior The grammatical construction of the Neuron How Neurons conjure up Whither Neurons attach to integrity some sepa tread Bridging the Gap Neuro transplantters Multitalented chemical Couriers module 6 module 7 The mastermind The aflutter brass and the Endocrine constitution Communicating inwardly the consistency The Nervous arranging The Endocrine agreement Of Chemicals and secretory organsStudying the chiefs Structure and Functions Spying on the conceiver The r all in all toldy Core Our Old Brain The Limbic System Beyond the of import Core The Cerebral lens cortex Our New Brain Neuroplasticity and the Brain The Specialization of the Hemisphithers Two Brains or One? Exploring Diversity Human Diversity and the Brain Try It Assessing Brain lateralisation The Split Brain Exploring the Two Hemispheres Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology erudition to Control Your Hearta nd Mind by center of with(predicate) Biofeed indorse Psychology on the mesh The Case of . . . The F both(prenominal)en Athlete Full Circle Neuroscience and Behavior 46Muscular System organic structurebuilder MetabolismThe Deepest Cut Wendy Nissley carried her cardinal-year-old daughter, fancy, into O. R. 12 at Johns Hopkins Hospital to ease up fr bring by means of and throughal of her ace removed. Lacy suffers from a rargon malformation of the spiritpower, k nown as hemimegalencephaly, in which genius noetic hemisphere grows larger than the different. The condition ca expends seizures, and Lacy was having so moreup to forty in a daythat at an age when oppositewise toddlers were trying out sentences, she could dumb instal b atomic tote up 18ly a few language- exchangeable sounds. As coherent as Lacys perverted right hemisphere was attached to the bide of her intelligence, it would pr razet her leftfield hemisphere from answering normally.So Lacys p ato mic tender-hearted torso 18nts had brought her to Johns Hopkins for a hemispherectomy, which is probably the nearly rootage procedure in neuro intellectual process. (Kenneally, 2006, p. 36) neuroscience and expression It took nearly a day, precisely the surgery to remove half of Lacys mastermind was a success. at poop a few months, Lacy was crawling and beginning to speak. Although the long-term effects of the radical operation atomic number 18 still unclear, it brought substantial improvement to Lacys life. The ability of surgeons to identify and remove damaged portions of the virtuoso is curt short of miraculous. The greater miracle, though, is the chief itself.An organ roughly half the coat of a loaf of bread, the mastermind suppresss our mien through every get off and sleeping moment. Our movements, thoughts, hopes, aspirations, dreamsour very aw beness that we atomic number 18 compassionateall expect on the wit and the nerves that extend passim the bole, constituting the head-in-the-clouds g all overning bole. Because of the wideness of the nerve cellic scheme in obtainling appearance, and because gentlemans gentleman at their or so basal direct atomic number 18 biological beings, numerous researchers in psychology and differentwise fields as diverse as computer science, zoology, and medicament bind made the biological underpinnings of fashion their specialty.These experts collectively are cal conduct neuroscientists (Beatty, 2000 Posner & DiGirolamo, 2000 Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Man shooter, 2002 Cartwright, 2006). Psychologists who specialise in considering the ship focus in which the biological structures and sounds of the ashes restrain believe behavior are known as Behavioral neuroscientists Psychologists who specialize in behavioural neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). They seek to answer sevconsidering the ways in which the eral key questions How does the principal control the willful and invo lunbiological structures and functions tary go of the soundbox?How does the wizardry exceed with otherwise of the soundbox affect behavior. separate of the dust? What is the physical structure of the instinct, and how does this structure affect behavior? Are mental overthrows cause by biological factors, and how pile a lot(prenominal) disorders be treated? As you consider the biological processes that well discuss in this chapter, it is alpha to keep in mind why behavioral neuroscience is an inherent decompose of psychology our perceiveing of human behavior requires knowledge of the instinct and other federal agencys of the sick musical arrangement.Biological factors are underlying to our sensory experiences, posits of consciousness, pauperization and emotion, development throughout the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furtherto a greater extent, advances in behavioral neuroscience show over led to the creation of drugs and other treatme nts for psychological and physical disorders. In short, we ordure non understand behavior without arrangement our biological makeup (Plomin, 2003a Compagni & Manderscheid, 2006 Plomin et al. , 2008). 47 expression ahe ad module 5 Neurons The Basic Elements of Behavior learning outcomes 5. 1 Explain the structure of a nerve cell.The nauseous transcription is the pathway for the book of instructions that permit our bodies to carry out everyday activities much(prenominal) as start an itch as well as more remarkable skills standardized climbing to the natural covering of Mount Eve relaxation. Here we go away look at the structure and function of nerve cells, the stalls that make up the neuronal trunk, including the brain. 5. 2 limn how neurons fire. 5. 3 Summarize how messages incite from one neuron to other. 5. 4 light upon neurosenders. The Structure of the Neuron LO 1 Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depend, at one level, on exact go t hrough coordination.But if we consider how the muscles can be triggerd so precisely, we see that at that place are more fundamental processes compo rate. For the muscles to draw the Gordian movements that make up any(prenominal) meaningful physical natural action, the brain has to let the right messages to them and coordinate those messages. Such messagesas well as those which change us to think, remember, and experience emotionare passed through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons plaque cells, the basic Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the skittish governance. Their elements of the anxious(p) outline. uantity is staggeringperhaps as many as 1 cardinal neurons throughout Dendrites A meet of fibers at the proboscis are involved in the control of behavior (Boahen, 2005). one end of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons. Although there are several(prenominal) types of neurons, they all constitute a standardised struc axone The part of the neuron that ture, as illustrated in bet 1. In pedigree to near other cells, however, carries messages destined for other neurons have a classifiable feature the ability to communicate with other neurons. cells and transmit entropy crosswise relatively long distances.Many of the bodys neurons receive signals from the environment or relay the nauseating arrangements messages to muscles and other target cells, still the vast break downity of neurons communicate exclusively with other neurons in the flesh out info system that gets behavior. As you can see in anatomy 1, a neuron has a cell body with a foregather of fibers called dendrites at one end. Those fibers, which look like the twisted Remember that Dendrites branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite Detect messages from other of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axoneee.The axon neurons Axons carry signals carries messages legitimate by the de ndrites to other neurons. The axon is conAway from the cell body. siderably longer than the rest of the neuron. Although closely axons are several s tudy aler t 48 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dendrites Terminal plainlytons Cell body M o ec vem tric ent of al i mpu lse el Myelin sheath Axon ( inner myelin sheath) invention 1 The primary chemical elements of the specialized cell called the neuron, the basic element of the head-in-the-clouds system (Van De Graaff, 2000).A neuron, like most types of cells in the body, has a cell body and a nucleus, but it too contains structures that carry messages the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neurons or body cells. In this neuron, as in most neurons, the axon is protected by the sausagelike myelin sheath. What advantages does the treelike structure of the neuron fork up? millimeters in length, some are as long as collar feet. A xons end in small bulges called ter minal figure buttons, which rouse messages to other neurons.The messages that set off through a neuron are galvanising in nature. Although there are exceptions, those electrical messages, or beats, universally move crossways neurons in one direction only, as if they were traveling on a one-way passage. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated in some fashion ( barely as electrical wires must be insulated).Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a tutelar coating of plump and protein that wraps around the axon like links of sausage. Terminal buttons Small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons. Myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. all(prenominal)-or-none equity The rule that neurons are every on or off. Resting state The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of near 70 millivolts deep down a neuron. s tudy aler t Think of a neuron as a sausage, and the myelin sheath as the case around it.LO 2 How Neurons Fire deal a gun, neurons either firethat is, transmit an electrical passion along the axonor get int fire. on that point is no in- amongst stage, just as pulling backbreakinger on a gun trigger doesnt make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law they are either on or off, with nothing in among the on state and the off state. at one time there is enough suck up to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. Before a neuron is triggeredthat is, when it is in a resting stateit has a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts.When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to deliver corroboratively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge r from each onees a lively level, the trigger is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action authorisation, travels along the axon of the neuron (see icon 2). psych 2. 0 www. mhhe. com/psychlife Neurons 49 staff 5 neurons the basic elements of behaviorFigure 2 Movement of the action authority crossways the axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions get into the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action dominance. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a incision of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative.Time 1 potential drop Time 2 ++ +++ Time 3 Voltage Voltage Positive charge Negative charge Direction of impulse Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a trigger, changing the neurons charge from negative to positive. reflect neurons Neurons that fire when a psyche enacts a token behavior and excessively when a person views others behavior. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse.Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again instantly no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire once again. Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon but in like manner in their potential rate of hammock off. Some neurons are loose of firing as many as a thousand measure per second others fire at much slower rates. The intensity of a stimulus makes how much of a neurons potential firing rate is reached.A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Thus, even though all impulses move at the same strength or speed through a particular axonbecause of the all-or-none lawthere is variation in the frequency of impulses, providing a mechanism by which we can distinguish the tickle pink of a feather from the weight of someone standing on our toes. Although all neurons operate through the firing of action potentials, there is significant strong point among different types of neurons.For example, in the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered the existence of reflect neurons, neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another exclusive carrying out the same behavior (Lepage & Theoret, 2007 Schulte-Ruther et al. , 2007). 50 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Mirror neurons whitethorn dish out explain how (and why) valet de chambre have the capacity to understand others intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons whitethorn fire when we view others behavior, helping us to ring what their goals are and what hey may do next (Oberman, Pineda, & Ramachandran, 2007 Triesch, Jasso, & Deak, 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others intentions. LO 3 Where Neurons Connect to One Another Bridging the Gap Synapse The space mingled with ii If you have looked inside a computer, youve seen that each part is physically attached to another part. In contrast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for a structural connection amongst its components.Instead, a chemical connection bridges the opening move, known as a synapse, between two neurons (see Figure 3). The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron 1 Neurotransmitter s are produced and lined in the axon. neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by development chemical messages. 2 If an action potential arrives, the axon acquittances neurotransmitters. 3 Neurotransmitters travel crossways the synapse to sense organ sites on another neurons dendrite. Axon Axon Synapse Dendrite Synapse Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Synapse Receptor siteReceptor site 4 When a neurotransmitter meets into a receptor site, it delivers an excitative or repressing message. If enough excitatory messages are delivered, the neuron will fire. A Neurotransmitter Dendrite B Figure 3 (A) A synapse is the joint between an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the entraps of a saber saw puzzle can fit in only one particular proposition location in a puzzle, each gentle of neurotransmitter has a distinctive conf iguration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000).Why is it advantageous for axons and dendrites to be cerebrate by temporary chemical bridges rather than by the hard wiring typical of a radio connection or speech sound hookup? faculty 5 neurons the basic elements of behavior 51 communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow & Poulos, 2005 Dean & Dresbach, 2006). carry messages crosswise the synapse to When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal the dendrite (and sometimes the cell button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotransbody) of a receiver neuron. mitter.Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the excitative messages Chemical synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an The chemical way of life of message transmis sion that occurs between neurons is action potential will travel down its axon. strikingly different from the means by which discourse occurs inside Inhibitory messages Chemical neurons although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they messages that prevent or decrease the move between neurons through a chemical transmission system. ikelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. thither are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are Reuptake The reabsorption of capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neuneurotransmitters by a terminal button. rotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron (see Figure 3B). It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is poss ible.If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is basically one of two types excitatory or repressing. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages, in contrast, do just the opposite they endure chemical discipline that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculator.Put simply, if the excitatory messages (fire ) outnumber psych 2. 0 the inhibitory ones (dont fire ), the neuron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory www. mhhe. com/psychlife messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002 Flavell et al. , 2006). If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the syn apse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual chemical bath, producing unvaried stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neuronsand effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible.To solve this fuss, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes ormore commonly reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum water-washed sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. All this exercise Messages Traveling between Neurons occurs at lightning speed (Helmuth, 2000 Holt & Jahn, 2004). Neurotransmitters Chemicals that LO 4 Neurotransmitters Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the aflutter system and behavior. non only are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce pixilated behavior disorders. More than a hu ndred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000 Schmidt, 2006). Neurotransmitters vary significantly in terms of how strong their tightness must be to trigger a neuron to fire. Furthermore, the effects of a particular neurotransmitter vary, depending on the line of business of the unquiet system in 52 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dopamine Pathways Name Acetylcholine (ACh) localisation Brain, spinal anaesthesia anesthesia anesthesia anaesthesia stack, peripheral nervous system, especially some organs of the parasympathetic nervous system nervous system Brain, spinal corduroy Brain, spinal cord Effect Excitatory in brain and unwilling nervous system inhibitory elsewhere Function Muscle movement, cognitive functioning Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Excitatory Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Memory Eating, aggression, sleeping Serotonin Pathways Dopamine (DA) Brain I nhibitory or excitatory Muscle disorders, mental disorders, Parkinsons malady Sleeping, eat, mood, pain, depression ail suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetities, placebosSerotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Endorphins Brain, spinal cord originally inhibitory, except in hippocampus Figure 4 Some study(ip) neurotransmitters. which it is produced. The same neurotransmitter, then, can act as an excitatory message to a neuron fixed in one part of the brain and can inhibit firing in neurons located in another part. (The major neurotransmitters and their effects are described in Figure 4. ) One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh is Michael J.Fox, who suffers from Parkinsons disease, like Muhammad Ali, has become a strong advocate for research into the disorder. The pair is seen here a contendg Congress for additional funds for Parkinsons research. Module 5 neurons the basic el ements of behavior 53 involved in our every move, becauseamong other thingsit transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in reposition capabilities, and diminished re deviate of ACh may be relate to Alzheimers disease (Mohapel et al. , 2005). Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, anxiety, and learning.The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development of effective treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinsons disease, from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. Techniques for increasing the labor of dopamine in From the perspective of . . . A Health Care Provider How big businessman your understanding of the nervous system help you explain the symptoms of Parkinsons disease to a patient with the disorder?Parkinsons patients are proving effective (Kaasinen & Rinne, 2002 Willis, 2005 Iversen & Iversen, 2007). In other instances, over doing of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have hypothe sized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or perhaps even caused by the presence of un commonly high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine take the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia (Baumeister & Francis, 2002 Bolonna & Kerwin, 2005 Olijslagers, Werkman, & McCreary, 2006). repriseExplain the structure of a neuron. A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons. (p. 48) message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon . Neurons operate according to an all-ornone law Either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state. p. 49) Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another. Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that actually bridge the gapsknown as synapsesbetween neurons. Neurotransmitters tell apart how neurons fire. Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a 54 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing. (p. 52) Identify neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. Common neurotransmitters include the following acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities gluta mate, which plays a role in memory gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain and endorphins, which await to be involved in the brains effort to look at with pain and elevate mood. p. 53) evaluate 1. The is the fundamental element of the nervous system. and send messages through their 2. Neurons receive discipline through their . 3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, axons are insulated by a coating called the . 4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called a 5. Endorphins are one kind of , the chemical messengers between neurons. . rethink How might psychologists use drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters to treat psychological disorders? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. neuron 2. dendrites, axons 3. yelin sheath 4. synapse 5. neurotransmit ter key terms Behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) p. 47 Neurons p. 48 Dendrites p. 48 Axon p. 48 Terminal buttons p. 49 Myelin sheath p. 49 All-or-none law p. 49 Resting state p. 49 Module 5 neurons the basic elements of behavior Action potential p. 50 Mirror neurons p. 50 Synapse p. 51 Neurotransmitters p. 52 Excitatory messages p. 52 Inhibitory messages p. 52 Reuptake p. 52 55 module 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System Communicating within the Body learning outcomes 6. 1 Explain how the structures f the nervous system are linked together. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. Estimates of the number of connections between neurons within the brain fall in the approximation of 10 quadrilliona 1 followed by 16 zeros. Furthermore, connections among neurons are not the only means of communication within the body as well see, the ductless gland system, which suppresss chemical messages that call up through the blood, also communicates messages t hat influence behavior and many aspects of biological functioning (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000 Forlenza & Baum, 2004 Boahen, 2005). . 2 Describe the operation of the ductless gland system and how it affects behavior. Central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. spinal anaesthesia cord A bundle of neurons LO 1 The Nervous System that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means of transmitting messages between the brain and the body. The human nervous system has both logic and elegance. We turn now to a discussion of its basic structures. Central and fringy Nervous SystemsAs you can see from the schematic representation in Figure 1, the nervous system is divided into two main parts the rally nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The rally nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the heaviness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back (see Figure 2). As you can see in Figure 1, the spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. 56 Chapter 2 euroscience and behavior The Nervous System Consists of the brain and the neurons extending throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System Made up of long axons and dendrites, it contains all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Central Nervous System Consists of the brain and spinal cord Somatic Division (voluntary) Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs autonomic Division ( automatic) Concerned with the parts of the body that function involuntarily without our sensory facultyBrain An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behavior Spinal Cord A bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the b ack transmits messages between the brain and the body Sympathetic Division Acts to organize the body in stressful indispensability situations, engaging resources to respond to a threat parasympathetic nervous system Division Acts to calm the body after an compulsion situation has occupied the sympathetic surgical incision grants a means for the body to maintain storehouse of energy sources Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the kinship of the parts of the nervous system.However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also physiological reaction An automatic, involuntary controls some fair behaviors on its own, without any help from the receipt to an debut stimulus. brain. An example is the way the genu jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of involuntary, an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at bunk when psych 2. 0 you touch a hot stove and immediately take your hand. Altho ugh the www. mhhe. com/psychlife brain eventually analyzes and reacts to the situation (Ouchhot stove pull out ), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. Three kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the cardinal nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect sensory and beat back neurons, carrying messages between the two. system of the Nervous System Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrinal system 57 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Spinal nervesFigure 2 The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. Sensory (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two. Peripheral nervous system The part As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body.Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major voices the somatic breakdown and the involuntary particle both of which connect the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs. The somatic plane section specializes in the control of voluntary movementssuch as the motion of the eye to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this pageand the communication of information to and from the sense organs.On the other hand, the autonomic variant controls the parts of the body that keep us alive the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are reading at this moment, the autonomic partition of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. Activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic atom plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading in bed you suddenly sense that someone is outdoor(a) your bedroom window.As you look up, you see the glint of an object that might be a knife. As confusion and fear overcome you, what happens to your body? If you are like most people, you react immediately on a physiological level. Your heart rate increases, you begin to sweat, and you develop goose bumps all over your body. The physiological changes that occur during a crisis result from the activation of one of the two parts of the autonomic nervous system t he sympathetic division. The sympathetic division acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations by engaging all of the existences resources to run away or confront the threat.This response is often called the fight-orflight response. In contrast, the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. When you find, for instance, that the stranger at the window is actually your gallant who has lost his keys and is climbing in the window to avoid waking you, your parasympathetic division begins to predominate, lowering your heart rate, stopping your sweating, and returning your body to the state it was in before you became alarmed. The parasympathetic division also directs the body to store energy for use in emergencies.The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body (see Figure 3). of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions made up of neurons with long axons a nd dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Somatic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.Autonomic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs. 58 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Parasympathetic Sympathetic Eyes Contracts school-age child Dilates pupil (enhanced vision) Heart Slow heartbeat Accelerates, strengthens heartbeat (increased oxygen) Lungs Constricts bronchi Relaxes bronchi (increased air to lungs) Stomach, Intestines Stimulates occupation Inhibits activity (blood to muscles) Blood Vessels of Internal Organs Dilates vesselsContracts vessels (increases blood pressure) Figure 3 The major functions of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division acts to prepare certain organs of the b ody for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has passed. Can you explain why each response of the sympathetic division might be useful in an emergency? (Source Adapted from Passer & Smith, 2001. ) Behavioral ingredienttics Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our contractable and evolutionary heritage.Behavioral genetic science studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral genetic science researchers are finding increasing evidence that cognitive abilities, personality traits, sexual orientation, and psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors (Reif & Lesch, 2003 Viding et al. , 2005 Ilies, Arvey, & Bouchard, 2006). Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature-nurture question, one of the key issues in the study of psychology. Although no one would argue that our behavior is determined solely by patrimonial factors, evidenceSympathetic division The p art of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organisms resources to respond to a threat. Parasympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended. Behavioral genetics The study of the effects of heredity on behavior. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 59 ollected by behavioral geneticists does suggest that our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. For instance, research indicates that genetic factors may be related to such diverse behaviors as level of family conflict, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, and general sociability (Harlaar et al. , 2005 Moffitt & Caspi, 2007). Furthermore, important human characteristics and behaviors are related to the presence (or absence ) of particular genes, the inherited material that controls the transmission of traits.For example, researchers have found evidence that novelty-seeking behavior is determined, at least in part, by a certain gene. As we will consider later in the book when we discuss human development, researchers have identified some 25,000 individual genes, each of which appears in a specific sequence on a particular chromosome, a formed structure that transmits genetic informaGenetic testing can be done to determine potential risks to an unborn child based on family history of tion across generations. In 2003, after a decade of effort, illnesses. esearchers identified the sequence of the 3 billion chemical pairs that make up human DNA, the basic component of genes. Understanding the basic structure of the human genomethe map of humans nub genetic makeupbrings scientists a giant step closer to understanding the contributions of individual genes to specific human structures and functioning (Plomi n et al. , 2003 Plomin & McGuffin, 2003 Andreasen, 2005). Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our genetic and evolutionary heritage. s tudy aler t The endocrine system produces hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood via the bloodstream.Behavioral Genetics, Gene Therapy, and Genetic Counseling. Behavioral genetics also holds the promise of developing natural diagnostic and treatment techniques for genetic deficiencies that can lead to physical and psychological difficulties. In gene therapy, scientists inject genes meant to cure a particular disease into a patients bloodstream. When the genes arrive at the site of wrong genes that are producing the illness, they trigger the production of chemicals that can treat the disease (Rattazzi, LaFuci, & Brown, 2004 Jaffe, Prasad, & Larcher, 2006 Plomin et al. 2008). The number of diseases that can be treated through gene therapy is growing, as we will see when we discuss human development. For example , gene therapy is now being used in experimental trials involving people with certain forms of cancer, leukemia, and blindness (Nakamura et al. , 2004 Wagner et al. , 2004 Hirschler, 2007). From the perspective of . . . A Physicians Assistant How valuable would an understanding of the brain and neurosystem be in your trick as a physicians partner? 60 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behaviorAdvances in behavioral genetics also have led to the development of a profession that did not exist several decades ago genetic counseling. Genetic counselors help people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. For example, genetic counselors abide advice to prospective parents about the potential risks in a future pregnancy, based on their family history of line of descent defects and ancestral illnesses. In addition, the counselor will consider the parents age and problems with children they already have.They also can take blood, skin, and urine samples to examine specific chromosomes. Endocrine system A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Hormones Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or return of the body. hypophysis gland gland The major component of the endocrine system, or master gland, which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system. LO 2 The Endocrine System Of Chemicals and Glands psych 2. www. mhhe. com/psychlife Another of the bodys communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. It also influencesand is influenced bythe functioning of the nervous system. As chemical messengers, hormones are like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different.Whereas neural messages are mea sured in thousandths of a second, hormonal communications may take minutes to reach their destination. Furthermore, neural messages move through neurons in specific lines (like a signal carried by wires strung along earphone poles), whereas hormones travel throughout the body, similar to the way radio waves are communicate across the entire landscape. Just as radio waves evoke a response only when a radio is tuned to the correct station, hormones flowing through the bloodstream activate only those cells which are receptive and tuned to the appropriate hormonal message.A key component of the endocrine system is the tiny pituitary gland. The pituitary gland has sometimes been called the master gland because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. But the pituitary gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands it has important functions in its own right. For instance, hormones secreted by the pituitary gland control growth. passing short people and unusually tall ones usually have pituitary gland abnormalities. Other endocrine glands, shown in Figure 4, affect delirious reactions, sexual urges, and energy levels.Although hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, there are a variety of artificial hormones that people may contain to take. For example, physicians sometimes prescribe hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to treat symptoms of menopause in older women. Other artificial hormones can be harmful. For example, some athletes use testosterone, a male hormone, and drugs known as steroids, which act like testosterone. For athletes and others who requirement to bulk up their appearance, steroids support a way to add muscle weight and increase strength.However, these drugs can lead to heart attacks, strokes, cancer, and even red behavior, making them extremely dangerous (Kolata, 2002 Arangure, 2005 Klotz, Garle, & Granath, 2006 Pagonis, Angelopoulos, & Koukoulis, 2006). The Endocrine System Steroids can provid e added muscle strength, but they have dangerous side effects. A number of well-known athletes have been accused of using the drugs illegally. Jose Conseco is one of the few major league baseball players to admit steroid use. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 61 Anterior pituitary body Gland Produces 6 hormones with diverse actionsHypothalamus Secretes several hormones that stimulate or inhibit front pituitary function Posterior Pituitary Gland Secretes oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during birth also secretes antidiuretic hormone, which increases water retention in the kidney Pineal Makes melatonin, which regulates periodical rhythms Parathyroids (behind the thyroid) Make parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium Thyroid Regulates metabolic rate and growth Stomach and Small Intestine Secrete hormones that facilitate digestion and regulate pancreatic activityHeart Makes atrial natriuretic peptide, which lowers blood sodium Adrenal Gland s bulb Makes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which mediate the fight-or-flight response Cortex Makes aldosterone, which regulates sodium and potassium remnant in the blood also makes glucocorticoids (such as cortisol), which regulate growth, metabolism, development, immune function, and the bodys response to stress Liver and Kidneys Secrete erythropoietin, which regulates production of red blood cells Pancreas Makes insulin Ovaries Produce estrogens such as progesterone, which control reproduction in femalesAdipose Tissue Produces adipokines (for example, leptin), which regulate appetite and metabolic rate Testes Produce androgens, such as testosterone, which control reproduction in males Figure 4 Location and function of the major endocrine glands. The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the other endocrine glands and in turn is regulated by the brain. Steroids can provide added muscle and strength, but they have dangerous side effects. (Source Adapted from Brooker et al, 2008, p. 1062) recap Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together. The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral 62 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior nervous system is made up of the somatic division, which controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions such as those of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. (p. 56) The autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.The sympathetic division prepares the body in emergency situations, and the parasympathetic division helps the body return to its typical resting state. (p. 58) Behavioral genetics examines the hereditary radical of human personality traits and behavior. (p. 59) Describe the operation of the endocrine system and ho w it affects behavior. The endocrine system secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via the bloodstream. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones and influences the release of hormones by other endocrine glands, and in turn is regulated by the hypothalamus. (p. 61) valuate 1. If you put your hand on a red-hot piece of metal, the immediate response of pulling it away would be . an example of a(n) 2. The central nervous system is composed of the and . 3. In the peripheral nervous system, the division controls voluntary movements, whereas the division controls organs that keep us alive and function without our awareness. 4. Maria saw a young boy run into the street and get hit by a car. When she got to the fallen child, she was in a state of panic. She was sweating, and her heart was racing. Her biological state resulted from the activation of what division of the nervous system? . Parasympathetic b. Central c. Sympathetic rethink In what ways is th e fight-or-flight response helpful to humans in emergency situations? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. reflex 2. brain, spinal cord 3. somatic, autonomic 4. sympathetic key terms Central nervous system (CNS) p. 56 Spinal cord p. 56 Reflex p. 57 Sensory (afferent) neurons p. 57 Motor (efferent) neurons p. 57 Interneurons p. 57 Peripheral nervous system p. 58 Somatic division p. 58 Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 63 Autonomic division p. 58 Sympathetic division p. 58 Parasympathetic division p. 58 Behavioral genetics p. 9 Endocrine system p. 61 Hormones p. 61 Pituitary gland p. 61 module 7 The Brain learning outcomes 7. 1 Illustrate how researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain. 7. 2 Describe the central core of the brain. 7. 3 Describe the limbic system of the brain. 7. 4 Describe the cerebral cortex of the brain. 7. 5 Recognize neuroplasticity and its implications. 7. 6 Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior. It is not much to look at. Soft, spongy, mottled, and pinkish-gray in color, it hardly can be said to give birth much in the way of physical beauty.Despite its physical appearance, however, it ranks as the superior natural marvel that we know and has a beauty and sophistication all its own. The object to which this description applies the brain. The brain is responsible for our loftiest thoughtsand our most primitive urges. It is the overseer of the intricate workings of the human body. Many billions of neurons make up a structure weighing just three pounds in the average adult. However, it is not the number of cells that is the most astounding thing about the brain but its ability to allow the human intellect to flourish by directing our behavior and thoughts.We turn now to a consideration of the particular structures of the brain and the primary functions to which they are related. However, a caution is in order. Although well discuss sp ecific areas of the brain in relation to specific behaviors, this approach is an oversimplification. No simple one-to-one correspondence exists between a distinct part of the brain and a particular behavior. Instead, behavior is produced by complex interconnections among sets of neurons in many areas of the brain our behavior, emotions, thoughts, hopes, and dreams are produced by a variety of neurons throughout the nervous system working in concert.LO 1 Studying the Brains Structure and Functions Spying on the Brain Modern brain-scanning techniques provide a window into the living brain. Using these techniques, investigators can take a dead reckoning of the interRemember that EEG, fMRI, nal workings of the brain without having to cut open a persons skull. The PET, and TMS differ in terms most important scanning techniques, illustrated in Figure 1, are the elecof whether they examine troencephalogram (EEG), positron emission imaging (PET), direct(a) brain structures or brain char ismatic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial charismatic stimulation functioning. maging (TMS). The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Although traditionally the EEG could produce only a graph of electrical wave patterns, new-fangled techniques are now used to transform the brains electrical activity into a pictorial representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities. s tudy aler t 64 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior A EEG B fMRI scan C TMS apparatus D PET scan Figure 1 Brain scans produced by different techniques. A) A computerproduced EEG image. (B) The fMRI scan uses a magnetic field to provide a detailed view of brain activity on a moment-by-moment basis. (C) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the newest type of scan, produces a transient disruption in an area of the brain, allowing researchers to see what a ctivities are controlled by that area. TMS also has the potential to treat some psychological disorders. (D) The PET scan displays the functioning of the brain at a given moment. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment.PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active regions, providing a striking prototype of the brain at work. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic fie ld, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity. Researchers then are able to rase the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a virtual lesion because it produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas The brain (shown here in cross section) may not be much to of the brain were physically cut. The enormous look at, but it represents one of the great marvels of human advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual development.Why do most scientist believe that it will be difficult, if not impossible, to duplicate the brains abilities? cut is only temporary. Module 7 the brain 65 Cerebral cortex (the new brain) LO 2 The Central Core Our Old Brain Although the capabilities of the human brain far exceed those of the brain of any other species, humans theatrical role some basic functions, such as breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more primitive animal(prenominal)s. Not surprisingly, those activities are d irected by a relatively primitive part of the brain.A portion of the brain known as the central core (see Figure 2) is quite similar in all vertebrates Central core (species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the old (the old brain) brain because its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primFigure 2 The major itive structures found in nonhuman species. divisions of the brain the If we were to move up the spinal cord from the base of the skull to locate cerebral cortex and the the structures of the central core of the brain, the first part we would come central core. Source Seeley, to would be the hindbrain, which contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum Stephens, & Tate, 2000. ) (see Figure 3). The medulla controls a number of searing body functions, the most important of which are breathing and heartbeat. The pons comes next, connecter the two halves of the cerebellum, which lies adjacent to it. Containing large bundles of nerves, th e pons acts as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and left Central core The old brain, which halves of the body.It is also involved in adjust sleep. controls basic functions such as eating The cerebellum is found just in a higher place the medulla and behind the pons. and sleeping and is common to all Without the help of the cerebellum we would be unable to walk a straight vertebrates. line without staggering and lurching forward, for it is the job of the cerebelCerebellum (ser uh BELL um) The lum to control bodied balance. It constantly monitors feedback from the part of the brain that controls sensible muscles to coordinate their placement, movement, and tension. In fact, balance. rinking too much alcohol seems to depress the activity of the cerebellum, leading to the un unconstipated gait and movement characteristic of drunkenness. Hypothalamus Responsible for regularization basic biological needs hunger, thirs t, temperature control Cerebral Cortex Pituitary Gland Master gland that regulates other endocrine glands Corpus Callosum bridge circuit of fibers passing information between the two cerebral hemispheres Pons refer in sleep and arousal Thalamus Relay center for cortex handles incoming and outgoing signals Reticular Formation A network of neurons related to sleep, arousal, and attention Cerebellum Controls bodily balanceSpinal Cord Responsible for communication between brain and rest of body involved with simple reflexes Medulla Responsible for regulating mostly unconscious functions such as breathing and circulation Figure 3 66 The major structures in the brain. (Source Johnson, 2000. ) Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior The cerebellum is also involved in several intellectual functions, ranging from the analysis and Like an ever-vigilant guard, the coordination of sensory information to problem reticular formation is made up of solving (Bower & Parsons, 2004 Paquier & Marien, 20 05 Vandervert, Schimpf, & Liu, 2007). roups of nerve cells that can activate The reticular formation extends from the other parts of the brain immediately medulla through the pons, passing through the middle section of the brainor midbrainand to produce general bodily arousal. into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Like an ever-vigilant guard, the reticular formation is made up of groups of nerve cells that can activate other parts of the brain immediately to produce general bodily arousal.If, for example, we Reticular formation The part of the brain extending from the medulla are startle by a loud noise, the reticular formation can agile a heightened through the pons and made up state of awareness to determine whether a response is necessary. The reticuof groups of nerve cells that can lar formation serves a different function when we are sleeping, seeming to immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily filter out background stimuli to allow us to sleep undisturbed. arousal.Hidden within the forebrain, the thalamus acts primarily as a relay staThalamus The part of the brain tion for information about the senses. Messages from the eyes, ears, and skin located in the middle of the central travel to the thalamus to be communicated upwardly to higher parts of the core that acts primarily to relay brain. The thalamus also integrates information from higher parts of the information about the senses. brain, sorting it out so that it can be sent to the cerebellum and medulla. Hypothalamus A tiny part of the The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus.Although tiny brain, located below the thalamus, that about the size of a fingertipthe hypothalamus plays an extremely impor- maintains homeostasis and produces tant role. One of its major functions is to maintain homeostasis, a steady and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. internal environment for the body. The hypothalamus helps provide a conLimbic system The part of the brain stant body temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the that controls eating, aggression, and cells.A second major function is equally important the hypothalamus produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of the spe- reproduction. cies, such as eating, self-protection, and sex. LO 3 The Limbic System Beyond the Central Core The limbic system of the brain consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdaloid nucleus and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex (see Figure 4).The structures of the limbic system jointly control a variety of basic functions relating to emotions and self-preservation, such as eating, aggression, and reproduction. Injury to the limbic sysFrontal lobe tem can produce striking changes in behavior. For example, speck to the amygdala, which is involved in fear and aggression, can turn animals that are usually docile and tame into belligerent savages. Conversely, animals that are usually wild and unmanageable may become meek and obedient following injury to the amygdala (Bedard & Persinger, 1995 Amygdala Gontkovsky, 2005).Hippocampus The limbic system is involved in Spinal cord several important functions, including Figure 4 The limbic system consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that are involved in selfpreservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. 67 Module 7 the brain self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. These functions are hardly ridiculous to humans in fact, the limbic system is sometimes referred to as the animal brain because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals.To identify the part of the brain that provides the complex and subtle capabilities that are uniquely human, we need to turn to another structurethe cerebral cortex. LO 4 Cerebral cortex The new brain, responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain contains four lobes. The Cerebral Cortex Our New Brain As we have proceeded up the spinal cord and into the brain, our discussion has centered on areas of the brain that control functions similar to those found in less sophisticated organisms.But where, you may be asking, are the Lobes The four major sections of portions of the brain that enable humans to do what they do outperform and that the cerebral cortex frontal, parietal, distinguish humans from all other animals? Those unique features of the temporary, and occipital. human brainindeed, the very capabilities that allow you to come up with Motor area The part of the cortex that such a question in the first placeare corporeal in the ability to think, evalis largely responsible for the bodys uate, and make complex judgments. The principal location of these abilities, voluntary movement. long with many others, is the cerebral corte x. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the new brain because of its relatively recent evolution. It But where, you may be asking, are consists of a mass of profoundly folded, rippled, convoluted tissue. Although only about one-twelfth of the portions of the brain that enable an inch thick, it would, if shape out, cover an area more than two feet square. This configurahumans to do what they do best and tion allows the surface area of the cortex to be that distinguish humans from all considerably greater than it would be if it were smoother and more uniformly packed into the other animals? kull. The uneven shape also permits a high level of integration of neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing. The cortex has four major sections called lobes. If we take a side view of the psych 2. 0 brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes www. mhhe. com/psychlife lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower center portio n of the cortex, with the occipital lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci. Figure 5 shows the four areas.Another way to describe the brain is in terms of the functions associated with a particular area. Figure 5 also shows the specialized regions within the lobes related to specific functions and areas of the body. Three major areas are known the motor areas, the sensory areas, and the affiliation areas. Although we will discuss these areas as though they were separate and independent, keep in mind that this is an oversimplification. In most instances, The Brain behavior is influenced simultaneously by several structures and areas within the brain, operating interdependently.The Motor Area of the Cortex If you look at the frontal lobe in Figure 5, you will see a shaded portion labeled motor area. This part of the cortex is largely responsible for the bodys voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area correspon ds to a specific locus within the body. If we were to insert an electrode into a particular part of the motor area of the cortex and apply mild electrical stimulation, there would be involuntary 68 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Somatosensory area Somatosensory association area Motor area Frontal Lobe Brocas areaParietal Lobe Primary auditive area Wernickes area Auditory association area secular Lobe Visual area Visual association area Occipital Lobe Figure 5 The cerebral cortex of the brain. The major physical structures of the cerebral cortex are called lobes. This figure also illustrates the functions associated with particular areas of the cerebral cortex. Are any areas of the cerebral cor